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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



WATER-SUPPLY 



AND 



IREIGATION PAPERS 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



:No. 24 



WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
PART I.— Rapter 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1899 



IRRIGATIOIS^ REPORTS. 

The following list contains the titles and brief descriptions of the! 
relating to water supply and irrigation, prepared by the United St 
Survey since 1890: 

1890. 

First Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1890; octavo, 123 pj 

Printed as Part II, Irrigation, of the Tenth Annual Beport of the United States Geoloo--" 
ical Survey, 1888-89. Contains a statement of the origin of the Irrigation Survey, a pre- 
liminary report on the organization and prosecution of the survey of the arid lands lor 
purposes of irrigation, and report of work done during 1890. 

1891. 

Second Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 395 

Published as Part II, Irrigation, of the Eleventh Annual Report of the United State? 
Geological Survey, 1889-90. Contains a description of the hydrography of the arid region 
and of the engineering operations carried on by the* Irrigation Survey during 1890; also 
the statement of the Director of the Survey to the House Committee on Irrigation, and 
other papers, including a bibliography of irrigation literature. Illustrated bv 29 plates and 
4 figures. 

Third Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891 ; octavo, 576 pp. 

Printed as Part II of the Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Sur- 
vey, 1890-91. Contains " Report upon the location and survey of reservoir sites during the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1891," by A. H. Thompson; "Hydrography of the arid regions," 
by F. H. Newell; and "Irrigation in India," by Herbert M. Wilson. Illustrated by 93platea 
and 190 figures. j f "sim 

Bulletins of the Eleventh Census of the United States upon irrigation, prepai 
by F. H. Newell; quarto. 

No. 85, Irrigation in Arizona; No. 60, Irrigation in New Mexico; No. 
Irrigation in Utah; No. 107, Irrigation in Wyoming; No. 153, Irrigation in 
Montana; No. 157, Irrigation in Idaho; No. 163, Irrigation in Nevada; No. 
178, Irrigation in Oregon; No. 193, Artesian wells for irrigation; No. 198, 
Irrigation in Washington. 

1893. 

Irrigation of western United States, by F. H. Newell; extra census bulletin No. 
23, September 9, 1892; quarto, 22 pp. 

Contains tabulations showing the total number, average size, etc., of irrigated holdings, 
the total area and average size of irrigated farms in the subhumid regions, the percentage 
of number of farms Irrigated, character of crops, value of irrigated lands, the average cost 
of irrigation, the investment and profits, together with a resume of the water supply and 
a description of irrigation by artesian wells. Illustrated by colored maps showing the 
location and relative extent of the irrigated areas. 

1893. 

Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92, Part 
III, Irrigation, 1893; octavo, 486 pp. 

Consists of three papers: "Water supply for irrigation," by F. H. Newell; "American 
irrigation engineering " and "Engineermg results of the Irrigation Survey," by Herbert 
M. Wilson; and " Construction of topographic maps and selection and survey of reservoir 
sites," by A. H. Thompson. Illustrated by 77 plates and 119 figures. 

A geological reconnoissance in eentral Washington, by Israel Cook Russell, 1893; 
octavo, 108 pp., 15 plates. Bulletin No. 108 ot the United States Geological 
Survey; price, 15 cents. 

Contains a description of the examination of the geologic structure in and adjacent to 
the drainage basin of Yakima River and the great plains of the Columbia to the east o| 
this area, with special reference to the occurrence of artesian waters. 

1894. 

Report on agriculture by irrigation in the western part of the United States at the 
Eleventh Census, 1890, by F. H. Newell, 1894; quarto, 283 pp. 

Consists of a general description of the condition of irrigation in the United States, the 
area irrigated, cost of works, their value and profits; also describes the water supply, the 
value of water, of artesian wells, reservoirs, and other details; then takes up each State 
and Territory in order, giving a general description of the condition of agriculture by irri- 
gation, and discusses the physical conditions and local peculiarities in each county. 

Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1892-93, Pi 
II, Accompanying papers, 1894; octavo, 597 pp. 

Contains papers on "Potable waters of the eastern United States," by W J McGee; 
"Natural mineral waters of the United States," by A. C. Peale; and "Results of stream 
measurements," by F. H. Newell. Illustrated by maps and diagrams. 



IRRS4 



(Continued on third page of cover.) 



DEPAETMENT OF THE INTEEIOE 



AVATER-SUPPLY 



lEEIGATION PAPEKS 



/ 



UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 






i>^o. 2 4 




WASHINGTOif 

GOVEENMENX PRINTING OFFICE 
1899 



UNITED STATES (JEOLOGICAL SUllVEY 

I 

CHAIILKS I). AVxVLCJTT, DIllECTOR 



WATER KESOUIiCES 



OF THE 



STATE OF NEW YORK 



PART I 



BY 



g-eoroil; w. rafter 




WASHINGTON^* ' " \ 



GOVERNMENT PRINTINCJf .G)FPICE . 

18 9 9 * ' *: 



* 






Jv^ 



^\ 



^ 



53484 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

Letter of transmittal 7 

Introduction 9 

General statements. .. ... 10 

Favorable natural conditions . 11 

Artificial modifications 11 

Water storage - 12 

Erie Canal 13 

Value of water to industries . 14 

Ownership of water 14 

Physical conditions _ . 16 

Mountains and forests 16 

Temperature and precipitation 18 

Rocks and stream flow 21 

River sj^stems 23 

St. Lawrence system . ... 24 

Niagara River 24 

Genesee River . 25 

Oswego River . 27 

Black River 29 

Streams flowing into St. Lawrence River _ . . . . 30 

Lake ChamjDlain system . . 31 

Hudson River system ... 33 

Mohawk River ... ... 35 

Schorarie Creek 35 

East Canada Creek 36 

West Canada Creek 38 

Other tributaries of Mohawk River 40 

Hoosic River 40 

Battenkill River 40 

Fish Creek 41 

Sacundaga River ... .... 42 

Schroon River 43 

Tributaries south of Mohawk River ... 43 

Allegheny River system . . 44 

Susquehanna River system 44 

Delaware River system 46 

Streams of Long Island 47 

Available water supply . . 48 

Run-off of Niagara River 48 

Run-off of St. Lawrence River 65 

Run-off of inland streams of New York 66 

Discharge measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks 67 

Discharge measurements of Oatka Creek 69 

Discharge measurements of Genesee River 70 

Discharge measurements of Hemlock Lake . 75 

Discharge measurements of Skaneateles Lake ..- 77 

5 



b CONTENTS. 

Available water supply — Contiuued. Page. 

Run-off of inland streams of New York — Continued. 

Discharge measurements of Hudson River 79 

Discharge measurements of Croton River 82 

Maximum and minimum flow of streams in New York 87 

Floods in Chemung River 87 

Low- water flow of Oatka Creek 90 

Low-water flow of Genesee River 90 

Low- water flow of Hemlock Lake 92 

Low- water flow of Morris Run 93 

Low- water flow of West Branch of Canada way Creek 94 

Low-water flow of Skaneateles Lake 96 

Low- water flow of Oswego River 96 

Low- water flow of Black River 96 

Low-water flow of Mohawk River ^ ^ 97 

Low- water flow of Hudson River 97 

Low- water flow of Croton River 98 

Summary of knowledge of low- water flow 98 

Index 100 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Erie Canal at the city of Buffalo . . 12 

n. A, Beaver Meadow, near Indian Lake, a typical reservoir site in the 

Adirondacks; B, Bog River in the Adirondacks. 16 

III. Drainage area of Genesee River 24 

IV. A, Upper and Middle Falls of Genesee River, at Portage; B, 

Genesee River Canyon below Middle Falls, at Portage 26 

V. Middle and Lower Falls of Genesee River at Rochester 28 

VI. A, Dam at the High Falls of East Canada Creek; B, High Falls 

at Trenton on West Canada Creek 38 

VIL Big Falls of Battenkill River 40 

VIII. A, Hudson River above Luzerne; B, Sacundaga River near 

Luzerne 42 

IX. Drainage area of Schroon River . 44 

X. Canyon of Genesee River between Mount Morris and Portage 70 

XI. A, Erie Canal aqueduct and south side of Main street bridge, 
Rochester; B, Great flood of 1865 at Rochester, showing lumber 

lodged against aqueduct bridge 90 

XII. Upper Falls of Genesee River at Portage 92 

XIII. High Falls of Mohawk River at time of low water 96 

Fig. 1. Index map of rivers of New York 23 

2. Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris, New York, 1893 to 

1896 -- 73 

3. Flood flow of Genesee River, May 18-24, 1894 74 

4. Discharge of Hudson River at Mechanicville, New York, 1888 to 

1897 - 81 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, 

Division of Hydrography, 

Washington, November 26, 1898. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a mannscript entitled 
Water Resources of the State of New York, prepared by Mr. George 
W. Rafter, and to recommend that it be published in the series of 
pamphlets upon Water Supply and Irrigation. The data herewith 
presented were brought together by Mr. Rafter during 1897 and trans- 
mitted early in February, 1898. Publication has been somewhat 
delayed by various obstacles which could not be readily overcome. 
The data are, however, of general interest and value, not only to the 
people of New York State, but also to engineers and jDcrsons in all 
parts of the country interested in the development and utilization of 
the water resources. Particular attention is given to the discussion 
of floods and low-water flow, these being to a large extent the deter- 
mining factors in considerations of the utilization of water power. 
Very respectfully, 

F. H. Newell, 
Hydrograplier in Charge. 
Hon. Charles D. Walcott, 

Director United States Geological Survey. 



WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 

PART I. 



By George W. Rafter. 



i:N^Tiior)UCTio:N^. 

The preeminent position of the State of New York is due almost 
entirely to her great natural water resources. Reaching from the 
ocean on the east to the Great Lakes on the west, she has gathered 
to herself the treasures of the foreign world as well as those of half 
the Western Continent. Her inland rivers, with their great water 
powers, have been in the past and will continue to be in the future 
a perpetual source of wealth. Taking into account the commercial 
supremacy guaranteed by the Erie Canal, it may be said that the his- 
tory of the State's progress during the nineteenth century is largely 
a history of the development of her water resources. It is the pur- 
pose of the author in this report to relate briefly not only in what 
manner these resources have been employed, but to indicate the 
recent lines of development and the probable future of the State 
if her water is utilized to the fullest degree. It is proposed to 
describe in a general way the river sj^stems, giving brief descriptions 
of several of the more important utilizations of water in New York, 
together with a discussion of some of the economic problems con- 
fronting the people of the State. 

As regards the water power of New York, it may be noted that the 
Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vols. XVI and XVII, gives 
in great detail the statistics of the main water powers as they existed 
in 1882. Many of these show considerable increase at the present 
time, although the new works are for the most part similar to those 
described in the census report, and hence present few additional fea- 
tures of interest. Several of the recent plants, however, are on quite 
different lines both as to their scope and as to the method of develop- 
ment adopted. It has therefore seemed more important to describe a 
few of the new plants and to give the main facts of the great storage 
projects of the Hudson and Genesee rivers than to spend time on 
small and relatively unimportant powers. 

9 



10 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

The peculiar relation of the State to water-power development on 
the main rivers of New York should be here mentioned. Owing to 
the circumstances of the early settlements and the development ot the 
canal system, the State has assumed ownership of the inland waters, 
or, at any rate, of all streams used as feeders of the canals. This 
assumption has worked injustice to riparian owners, and is at present 
a bar in the way of the full development of important streams by 
private enterprise. 

The data embodied in this report have been gathered from many 
sources — the annual reports of the State engineer and surveyor, the 
superintendent of public works, the forest commission, the State 
board of health, the State weather service, and other public docu- 
ments.. The data in the reports on the Water Power of the United 
States, Tenth Census, have been used in many cases where later data 
are not available. During the years 1896 and 1897 the author, in 
addition to his regular duties in the State engineer's department, 
gathered a large amount of information bearing on the water resources 
of the State and not published in the annual reports of the State 
engineer's department. Much of this is in the way of piecing out 
earlier information and bringing the subject up to date. By the 
courtesy of the State engineer and surveyor these special data have 
been embodied in the present report. 

The figures as to drainage area have been obtained by checking 
on French's map, published in 1860, those given in the reports on 
the water power of the United States, Tenth Census, so far as they 
are available, and by pianimeter measurement on the topographic 
atlas sheets of the State made by the United States Geological Sur- 
vey. Bien's Atlas of the State of New York has also been used as a 
check in some cases, and a number of areas have been taken from 
the report of the Deep Waterways Commission. 

The elevations of points above tide water have been compiled from 
all available sources of information, such as Dictionary of Altitudes 
in the United States, Bulletin No. 76 of the United States Geological 
Survey; the reports of the New York State survey and railway canal 
profiles; the topographic atlas sheets of the United States Geological 
Survey, and the reports on the water power of the United States, 
Tenth Census, 1880. 

GENEKAI. STATEMENT. 

A report of this character is prepared for the benefit of two classes: 
First, professional or business men who read during leisure hours in 
order to add to their stock of general information ; second, engineering 
specialists, physicists, and men of expert scientific attainments gen- 
erally who desire full details as part of their stock of professional 
knowledge. The latter class will naturally study the details, while 



RAFTER.] NATURAL CONDITIONS AND ARTIFICIAL MODIFICATIONS. 1 1 

for the former a succinct statement of the results of the study is gen- 
erally sufficient. It is from this point of view that a statement of the 
general results of the study of the water resources of New York is 
here introduced at the beginning of the report. 

FAVORABLE NATURAL CONDITIONS. 

New York State is great in water resources, not only by virtue of 
her position between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, but 
because topographic, geologic, and climatic conditions have combined 
to make her the highway of commerce as well as the manufacturing 
center of the United States. Some of the contributing causes to this 
preeminent position maybe found in her mountain systems, affording 
three great water centers, from which large streams descend to the 
neighboring lowlands, affording large opportunities for the economic 
development of water power. As regards water power, the other 
chief contributing causes are the possession, as part of h&v domain, of 
Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers, with their extensive possibilities for 
future water-power development. 

A study of the climatology of New York shows that in nearly every 
portion of the State the amount and distribution of the rainfall are 
such as to insure a large enough run -off of streams to furnish, even 
under natural conditions, considerable water power. 

ARTIFICIAL MODIFICATIONS. 

Natural conditions have been largely interfered with by the cutting 
oft* of forests and the consequent extensive development of the agri- 
cultural interests of the State. As a tentative proposition, it is 
assumed that the general cutting off of the forests of New York State 
has decreased the annual run-off of streams issuing from the defor- 
ested areas to a depth of from 4 to G inches per annum. 

The run-off of Niagara River has been commonly assumed, on the 
authority of the Lake Survey, at about 265,000 cubic feet per second. 
The recent stiKlies indicate that the extreme low flow of a cycle of 
minimum years may be not more than 60 per cent of this figure. 
From this point of view the people of the State of New York liave 
the greatest possible interest in any project which would tend to 
decrease the low- water run-off of that stream. Such interest is 
equally pronounced in the case of St. Lawrence River. 

Measurements of discharge of a number of the inland streams of 
New York indicate considerable variations in water yield in different 
parts of the State. For instance, Genesee River, in the Avestern part, 
in 1895 gave, with a rainfall of 31 inches, a minimum flow for the 
year of 6.67 inches. The drainage area of tliis stream is mostl}^ 
deforested, whence it results that serious floods are frequent. For 



12 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

example, from May 19 to 24, 1894, the total discharge was nearly 
6,900,000,000 cubic feet, the maximum, which occurred at 3.30 a. m.. 
May 21, being 42,000 cubic feet per second. The drainage area above 
the point where this flood occurred is 1,070 square miles. 

The lowest annual run-off thus far measured in the State of New 
York is that of the Hemlock Lake drainage area, where, in 1880, the 
total run-off from an area of 43 square miles was only about 3.35 
inches. 

Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries in this 
State all have large pondage on natural lakes, which, with other con- 
ditions, tend to maintain the low- water flow. Croton River presents 
surface geological conditions which tend to increase its low- water flow. 
Without going into detail, we may say that these streams will yield a 
minimum flow of about 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 
Variations from this limit are given in the chapters specially discuss- 
ing minimum flow. 

As a typical flood stream of the State, Chemung River may be men- 
tioned, where serious floods, due to deforestation of a mountainous 
drainage area, have become so common as to necessitate the carrying 
out of extensive protection w^orks at the large towns on that stream. 

WATER STORAGE. ^ 

Large development of water power on Genesee River has led to 
a demand for extensive storage reservoirs on that stream. The sur- 
veys made by the State indicate that a storage reservoir of 15,000,000,000 
cubic feet capacity can be constructed at a cost of 12,600,000, or at the 
rate of about 1173 per million cubic feet stored. It is considered that 
the construction of such a reservoir is commercially feasible, and, pro- 
vided the State legislature will grant the necessary permission, the 
project will probably be carried out by a private company. The devel- 
oped water power of Genesee River has increased from about 6,000 
horsepower in 1882 to about 18,000 horsepower in 1898. 

Extended studies have also been made of the possibilities of water 
storage on Hudson River, where the water power has increased from 
less than 13,000 horsepower in 1882 to something like 55,000 horse- 
power at the beginning of 1898. The studies, so far as carried, show 
that it is possible to create on that stream a continuous, permanent 
power of about 175,000 horsepower. Probably when the studies are 
complete it will appear that considerably more than this can be devel- 
oped at a cost which will be commercially feasible. 

The great power developments on Niagara River at Niagara Falls, 
and on St. Lawrence River at Massena, are the most significant indus- 
trial movements now taking place in the United States. The future 
power of these two streams may easily be placed at several hundred 
thousand horsepower. 



UAFTEK.] GENERAL STATEMENT. 13 

ERIE CANAL. 

Erie Canal, a view of wiiieli is given on PI. I, was the first great 
development of the internal water resonrces of New York, and grew 
out of the demand for transportation facilities between the Atlantic 
seaboard and the Great Lakes. The impulse Avhich it gave to the 
development of New York State, and of the entire territory tributar}^ 
to the Great Lakes, can hardly be estimated. Taking into account 
its far-reaching consequences, it may be considered the greatest pub- 
lic work thus far carried out in the United States. Nevertheless, 
Erie Canal has not only passed its day of usefulness, but, to some 
extent, stands in the way of future development, the chief cause for 
this being a too pronounced regard for the canal's former greatness. 
The historical matter cited in the body of the report may serve to indi- 
cate how strongly the feeling that Erie Canal should be maintained 
in perpetuity has been impressed upon the people of the State of 
New York. 

By way of illustrating the rise and decline of Erie Canal, it may be 
cited that in 1837 the total freijrht carried was 1,171,296 tons, valued at 
$55,809,288; in 1880 the total freight carried was 6,457,656 tons, valued 
at $247,844,790; in 1895 the total freight carried was 3,500,314 tons, 
valued at $97,453,021. Statistics show that the great bulk of all the 
freight now carried on Erie Canal is through freight carried for 
Western producers, local business being only a small per cent of the 
whole. Statistics show that freights are now carried by railways as 
cheaply as they can be carried by the canal, and this, too, at a profit, 
while the canal, in order to obtain any freight at all, has been obliged 
to do away with all tolls, thus making the cost of shipment by canal 
the bare cost of transportation proper. 

In 1895 an improvement of Erie Canal was authorized at a cost of 
19,000,000. The work of this improvement is now in progress. 
Recently it has been found that the cost will be $16,000,000, instead of 
$9,000,000, as originally expected. On this basis, and throwing out 
of the account former expenditures, we may say that Erie Canal will 
cost the people of the State of New York annualty at least $1,230,000. 
Assuming a traffic for the enlargement of the canal of 5,000,000 tons 
per annum, carried 200 miles, we have a total of 1,000,000,000 ton-miles 
per annum on which the people of the State of New York must pay in 
the way of interest and cost of maintenance and operation about 1.25 
mills per ton-mile, while canal freights now average about 1.2 mills 
per ton-mile; hence the people of the State of New York will be 
obliged to pay under the new conditions over 50 per cent of the total 
cost of the transportation. At present the local canal freights are only 
15 per cent of the total. 

Owing to her extensive inland-navigation system the experience of 
New York as to loss of water from artificial channels has been very 



14 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

extensive. Measurements made at different times show that in a 
canal of the dimensions of the original Erie Canal, which had a sec- 
tion of 40 feet water surface, 28 feet bottom, and 4 feet depth, there 
should be provided, in order to cover the evaporation and percolation 
losses, a water supply of about 100 cubic feet per mile per minute. 
Details relating to this special subject may be found further on. 

The State early adopted the policy of leasing surplus waters of Erie 
Canal for power purposes. The most extensive development growing 
out of such leases is that at Lockport, where several thousand horse- 
power are in use supplying establishments valued at about 12,500,000 
a year, and employing nearly 1,900 operatives, with an annual product 
of about 13,000,000. 

VALUE OF WATER TO INDUSTRIES. 

Water power is extensively sold at Oswego, Cohoes, and Niagara 
Falls, and to some extent at Rochester. It will also be extensively 
sold at Massena when the development there is completed. 

The value of the internal waters of the State to some of the leading 
industries, such as the lumber industry and the wood-pulp and paper 
industrj^, may be noted. On Hudson River from 1851 to 1897, inclu- 
sive, the total number of logs taken to market by water transporta- 
tion was 23,313,585, these market logs furnishing 4,662,717,000 feet 
B. M. of lumber. The cost of driving logs from the head waters of 
the Hudson to the Big Boom above Glens Falls is said to be from 50 to 
75 cents per thousand feet B. M. 

The wood-pulp and paper industry is developed in New York -State 
to a point beyond that reached in any other State of tho Union. On 
January 1, 1898, there were at least 125,000 net water horsepower in 
use in the State in the production of mechanical wood pulp, while 
probably from 30,000 to 35,000 more are consumed in operating paper 
mills. 

One obstacle to the easy operation of water power in this State is 
the formation on man}^ streams of frazil or anchor ice. A stud}' of 
the formation of frazil and anchor ice, as made by the Montreal har- 
bor commissioners, indicates that it may be possible to learn in the 
future how to remedy this difficulty. 

OWNERSHIP OF WATER. 

The sand areas of Long Island present conditions of water yield 
different from those of the other drainage areas of the State. We 
have here an extended region of coarse, deep sand, into which the 
rainfall sinks easily, there being almost no surface run-off. These 
sand areas form subterranean reservoirs, from which from 0. 7 to 0. 8 
cubic foot per square mile per second may be drawn, the same as from 
artificial reservoirs on the earth's surface, these natural underground 



RAFTER] OWNERSHIP OF WATER. 15 

reservoirs possessing the advantage of furnishing a filtered water of 
a high degree of purity. 

The taking of the water supply of Brooklyn from the sand areas of 
Long Island has led to the development of legal principles relating to 
rights In underground Avater somewhat different from those derived 
from the common law of England. The decision in a test case now 
before the courts is, in effect, that AA^hen subterranean Avater is taken 
in large quantity for the supply of cities or for manufacturing pur- 
poses the party taking it is liable to the adjacent landowners the 
same as in the case of diverting surface Avater. 

Owing to the development of the internal navigation sj^stem, and 
the consequent assumption on the part of the courts and State officials 
that the State's rights to the inland Avaters Avere, in effect, paramount 
to all other rights, no general mill act has cA^er been enacted in the 
State. Nevertheless, the demand for water storage on the streams of 
the northern part of the State and on St. Lawrence River, AA^liich are 
not in any Avay tributarj^ to Erie Canal, has led to the enactment of 
a number of special laAvs Avhich have the force of mill acts in that 
they grant the right of eminent domain for the purpose of improving 
the hydraulic poAver of streams. This phase of deA^elopment of the 
laws .of this State relating to riparian rights is an exceedingly inter- 
esting one. 

Titles to lands under water and AA'-ater rights have been considerably 
complicated in New York because of the peculiar circumstances of the 
early settlement. It is well-established laAA^ that Hudson and MohaAA^k 
rivers belong to the State, Avhile the Genesee and the other large rivers 
belong to the riparian owners. A confusion of ideas arising out of 
such contradictory facts as these has undoubtedly assisted in obscur- 
ing the real relations of the State to riparian owners in New York. 

In the case of Black River large quantities of water have been 
diverted for the supply of Black River and Erie Canal, Avhich has been 
compensated for in kind hj the construction of a system of State res- 
ervoirs on the head waters of that stream capable of storing nearly 
3,800,000,000 cubic feet. The State has further recognized the rights 
of riparian owners in the Black River reservoirs by creating a com- 
mission of OAAHiers and users of water power on Black River to manage 
the discharge from the reservoirs. 

Skaneateles Lake presents a case where the State, liaA^ng originally 
appropriated water for the supply of Erie Canal, has later, by act of 
legislature, allowed the taking of the said water for a municipal 
supply. 

With restrictive legislation repealed and a proper mill act enacted, 
we may hope ultimately to develop in New York approximatel}^ 
1,518,000 gross horsepower, AA'orth to the people of the State anj^- 
where from $150,000,000 to $200,000,000 a year, or as much as the 
present entire agricultural product of the State. 



16 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

PPIYSICAI. CO:^rDITIO]S^S. 

Considering only the broader topographic features, the streams of 
the State may be pictured as coming from three main water centers. 
The first of these in importance is the Adirondack area, the peaks of 
which are over 5,000 feet in height. Next to this are the Catskill 
Mountains, in the soutlieastern part of the State, the greatest heights 
of which are about 4,000 feet; and third are the highlands of the 
southwestern portion of the State, portions of the Allegheny Plateau. 
In extent the Adirondack Region is much the largest, and owing to 
this fact and its higher elevation it is the most important water center 
of the State. The Catskill Region, from its lower altitude and from 
changes introduced by cutting off the forests, is much less valuable 
in yield of water. The issuing streams are flashy and uncertain, 
pouring down destructive floods in spring and running nearly dry 
during the summer and fall. It is, without doubt, la;rgely owing to 
this fact that water-power development has made less progress in this 
part of the State than in the other power-producing sections. The 
Allegheny Plateau has also greatlj^ deteriorated in water-yielding 
capacity on account of deforestation. The serious effect of such 
decrease is discussed later in connection with the Genesee River 
storage project. 

MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS. 

The mountain belt included in the Adirondacks proper — the Bou- 
quet, Schroon, Kayaderosseras, and Luzerne ranges, with the High- 
lands immediately to the west — has come to be commonly known as 
the Adirondack Plateau. Describing this broadly, it may be consid- 
ered as bounded on the east by Lake Champlain, on the west by the 
valley of Black River, on the north by the farming regions of the St. 
Lawrence, and on the south by those of the Mohawk Valley. The 
mountain belt proper, however, occupies only the eastern and southern 
part of the Adirondack Plateau. Its greatest width is about 40 miles. 
The mountain ranges, however, are not always distinct; sometimes 
these are lateral spurs interlocked and sometimes single mountains 
occupy the space between the ranges, filling the valleys. 

From the Adirondack Plateau streams flow to the north, southeast, 
and west. The principal streams flowing north, east, and west to the 
St. Lawrence system are Moose, Beaver, Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, 
St. Regis, Salmon, Saranac, Ausable, and Bouquet rivers. The southern 
streams, which all belong to the Hudson system, are Sacundaga, Indian, 
Cedar, Opalescent, Boreas, and Schroon rivers, and East Canada and 
West Canada creeks. All these streams head in lakes, of which the 
most important, tributary to the St. Lawrence, are Placid, Saranac, 
St. Regis, Loon, Rainbow, Osgood, Meacham, Massawepie, Cranberry, 
Tupper, Smiths, Albany, Red Horse Chain, Beaver, Brandeth, Bog 



U. S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. 




A BEAVER MEADOW, NEAR INDIAN LAKE, A TYPICAL RESERVOIR SITE IN THE 
ADIRONDACKS. 




B. BOG RIVER IN THE ADIRONDACKS. 



RAFTEK.] MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS. 17 

River Cliaiu, Big Moose, Fulton Chain, Woodlmll, Bisby, Raquette, 
and Blue Mountain. Typical views are given on PL II. '^*' 

Following are the principal lakes of the Adirondack Plateau tribu- 
tary to the Hudson system : Pleasant, Piseco, Oxbow, Sacundaga, Elm, 
Morehouse, Ilonnedaga, West Canada, Wilmurt, Salmon, Spruce, 
Cedar, Lewey, Indian, Rock, Chain, Catlin, Rich, Harris, Newcomb, 
Thirteenth, Henderson, Sanford, Colden, Boreas, Elk, Paradox, Brant, 
Schroon, and Luzerne. 

The great forest of northern New York occupies the central part of 
the Adirondack Plateau, and deserves notice from its importance as 
a conservator of the streams issuing from that region. According 
to a map accompanying the report of the forest commissioners of New 
York for 1891, the outlines of the great forest are substantially as 
follows: Its eastern boundary coincides quite closely with a line 
drawn through Keene Valley and thence along the valleys of Schroon 
River and the upper Hudson ; its southern boundary is for the main 
part identical with that of Hamilton County and the town of Wilmurt, 
in Herkimer County, although in some places the forest extends a 
short distance into Fulton County ; its western boundary is the county 
line between Lewis and Herkimer counties; its northern boundary runs 
in an irregular line from a point near Harrisville, on the Lewis and St. 
Lawrence County line, to the Upper Chateaugay Lake, which is situ- 
ated near the line between Franklin and Clinton counties. This 
territory contains about 3,590,000 acres, of which 3,280,000 acres are 
considered to be covered with dense forests. Within this region there 
are from 1,300 to 1,400 lakes and ponds, while from it the eighteen 
important streams just enumerated diverge in every direction. The 
general elevation of the Adirondack Plateau is about 2,000 feet above 
the level of the sea. Little discussion is needed, therefore, to show the 
great value of this elevated forest-covered plateau as a conservator of 
the natural waters of the State. 

One important utilization of the waters of this State formerly was 
the carrying of logs to market through the various streams. By 
reason of the clearing off of the forests, that business has gradually 
declined, until, except in the Adirondack Plateau, it is now of 
little importance. It has been the policy of the State for a number 
of years to' acquire, as far as possible, by tax title and purchase, 
bodies of land in the Adirondack forest for the purpose not only 
of conserving the forests in order to increase the yield of streams, 
but for the further purpose of creating a forest park worthy of the 
great Commonwealth of New York. In order to carry out this project 
the forest-preserve board has been empowered to purchase lands 
within the forest, or, failing to agree on terms with the landowners, 
to take lands under condemnation proceeding.^ 

1 The State holdings in the Adirondack Region up to the year 1895 may be determined by ref- 
erence to a map of the Adirondack forest and adjoining territory as issixed by the fisheries, 
game, and forest commission in 1895. 
IRR 24 2 



18 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

The Adirondack Plateau is a rugged, rocky region, sparsely popu- 
lated, and worthless for agriculture. Its chief value lies in a com- 
plete utilization of such natural resources as attach to its unparal- 
leled water-yielding capacity. From this point of view it may easily 
become an important factor in the future development of New York. 
To insure this result the water yield of every stream of the region 
needs to be conserved by reservoir systems. 

TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION. 

In 1826 an elaborate system of meteorological observations at the 
State academies was inaugurated by the board of regents of the 
University of New York and was continued until 1863. During a 
portion of this period, and later, a large amount of data was obtained 
by volunteer observers of the Smithsonian Institution and at military 
posts. In 1871 the United States Signal Service took charge of work 
of this character, and in 1889 the State meteorological bureau was 
organized. There is, therefore, a large accumulation of material 
regarding the local climate, such that an account of it would extend 
beyond the limits of this paper. For details reference should be 
made to the volumes on meteorology published by the board of 
regents of the State University; also to the bulletins and annual 
reports of the State meteorological bureau and of the United States 
Weather Bureau. 

To facilitate the study of meteorological data the individual sta- 
tions have been grouped in accordance with topographic features and 
geographic position, the subdivisions being as shown in the accom- 
panying table. The names indicate in a general way the relative 
position, the Western Plateau including the portion of the Appa- 
lachian Highlands west of Seneca Lake, and the Eastern Plateau the 
remainder of the Appalachian Highlands from Seneca Lake eastward 
to the Hudson Valley. 

The average annual temperature is generally taken as decreasing 
with altitude at the ratio of 1° F. to every 300 feet of elevation, the 
rate being somewhat below this average in winter and above it in 
summer. An approximate determination for the State iudicates that 
the rates of decrease are .3° F. per hundred feet elevation for the 
winter, and .4° F. per hundred feet for the summer. For the moun- 
tains of northern New York a much smaller variation than .3"^ F. 
appears to hold for the winter months. 



RAFTEH.l TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION. 19 

Average monthly and annual temperatiiy^es for the 22-year period, 1S7 1-1892. {a) 





West- 
ern 
Pla- 
teau. 


East- 
ern 
Pla- 
teau. 


North- 
ern 
Pla- 
teau. 


Atlan- 
tic 
coast. 


Hud- 
son 
Valley. 


Cham- 
plain 
Valley. 


St. 
Law- 
rence 

Valley. 


Great 
Lakes. 


Cen- 
tral 
lakes. 


Mo- 
hawk 
Valley. 


Aver- 
age 
of the 
ten 
re- 
gions. 


Altitude 
(feet)... 


1,287 


1,070 


1,578 


82 


221 


186 


431 


484 


645 


639 


662 


January . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . _ 
September 
October .. 
November 
December. 


22.0 
23.6 
28.5 
41.7 
54.8 
64.3 
68.6 
66.6 
59.3 
47.3 
35.5 
26.7 


21.3 
22.5 

28.6 
42.0 
55.0 
64.8 
68.6 
66.3 
61.5 
47.2 
35.6 
25.9 


16.0 

16.8 
24.0 
36.8 
57.8 
60.3 
63.8 
62.5 
55.0 
43.3 
31.0 
21.2 


30.5 
31.6 

35.9 
46.7 
57.6 
67.0 
72.3 
71.1 
65.3 
55.1 
43.9 
34.5 


21.5 
26.9 

38.2 
46.2 
58.8 
68.1 
72.0 
69.6 
62.8 
50.8 
39.0 
28.5 


16.3 

17.5 
25. 9 
40.8 
55.2 
64.7 
69.9 
67.5 
58.6 
46.9 
34.5 
21.8 


15.9 
17.3 
26.5 
40.4 
55.5 
64.2 
68.2 
65.9 
.58.4 
45.7 
33:2 
22.2 


23.4 
24.3 

29.9 
42.0 
54.8 
64.9 
69.8 
68.1 
61.1 
49.3 
37.3 
28.4 


24.2 
25.8 
30.6 
44.2 
57.3 
66.0 
70.8 
68.7 
61.6 
49.6 
37.1 
28.3 


21.0 
22.8 
28.8 
42.8 
55.8 
65.0 
69.2 
67.3 
60.0 
48.0 
35.0 
25.8 


21.6 
22.9 
29.2 
42.3 
55.7 
65.0 
69.3 
67.4 
60.4 
48.3 
36.3 
26.3 


Average 


44.8 


44.7 


40.3 


50.8 


48.4 


43.2 


42.8 


46.0 


47.0 


45.2 


45.4 



a From fifth annual report of the State weather bureau. 

The intimate relation which exists between air circulation and pre- 
cipitation in New York is one of the most interesting facts to be 
noted. Owing to lack of moisture in the continental interior, north- 
west winds in the spring, summer, and fall are essentially dry. 
In winter their dryness proceeds from low temperature and conse- 
quent small vapor-carrying capacity. The winter precipitation is due 
almost entirel}^ to storm areas passing either actually across or in the 
vicinity of this State and deriving their supply of vapor from the 
inflow of moist air which they induce, either from the Atlantic Ocean 
or from the Gulf Region. 

The winter months — December, January, and February — have 
somewhat less precipitation than either of the other seasons, although 
in the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, on the southwestern highlands 
of the State, and in the region of the Great Lakes the winter jDrecip- 
itation is relatively large. 

In the spring rising temx)erature produces a modification and shift- 
ing of pressure systems, the winds decreasing in velocity and their 
directions being more variable than in winter. The frequent show- 
ers occurring in April and May appear to be due more than at any 
other time to the effect of an admixture of air having different tem- 
peratures. 



20 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no.24. 



In summer the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean contribute 
large supplies of moisture to northward-moving air currents, and, 
although cyclonic depressions are less frequent than at any other sea- 
son, the rainfall accompanying each storm is heavy, and in New York 
the maximum seasonal precipitation, amounting as an average for 
the whole State to 10.96 inches, occurs in this season. 

As regards the fall months, the rainfall of September is usually 
light in the region east of the Great Lakes, while in October the max- 
imum general rainfall occurs. As regards meteorological conditions, 
winter may be considered as beginning in November. 

Average precipitation in Nev^ York State, in inches. 



Altitude (feet) a_., 

January .... 

February 

March 

April 

May :. 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Annual 

Storage period 

Growing period 

Replenishing period 



Western 
Plateau. 



1,307 



2.53 
2.23 

2.51 
2.68 
3.36 
4.23 
3.25 
3.13 
2.90 
3.28 
2.76 
2.73 



35.58 



16.03 
10.61 

8.94 



Eastern 
Plateau. 



1,056 



2.52 
2.34 
2.46 
2.80 
3.54 
4.16 
4.04 
3.50 
3.13 
3.31 
2.81 
2.82 



37.43 



16.49 

11.69 

9.26 



North- 
ern 
Plateau. 



973 



3.11 
2.78 
3.06 
2.66 
3.45 
3.28 
4.09 
3.50 
3.19 
3.47 
3.48 
2.90 



38.97 



17.96 

10.87 
10.14 



Coast 
region. 



132 



3.47 
3.22 
3:74 
3.50 
3.90 
3.53 
4.20 
4.54 
3.59 
3.93 
3.87 
3.44 



44.93 



21.29 

12. 27 
11.37 



Hudson 
Valley. 



230 



2.89 
2.26 
2.88 
2.82 
3.53 
3.68 
4.24 
3.69 
2.90 
3.52 
3.15 
9, SQ 



38.46 



17.27 

11.62 

9.57 



Cham- 
plain 
Valley. 



262 



1.73 
1.35 
1.94 
1.88 
2.63 
3.16 
3.24 
3.39 
3.09 
3.12 
2.61 
1.92 



St. Law- 
rence 
Valley. 



414 



30.06 



11.44 
9.79 

8.83 



2.19 
2.15 
2.49 
2.21 

2.82 
3.54 
3.39 
2.75 
3.26 
3.44 
2.71 
2.57 

33. 52 



14.43 

9.68 
9.41 



a Average altitude of stations considered. 

A study of the data shows that there are a number of contending 
forces which are distinctively operative in New York, and which by 
modifying one another tend to produce numerous irregularities of the 
rainfall. So irregular indeed is the precipitation that frequently 
places only a short distance apart show wide variations. 

In a general way it may be said that the amounts of annual rainfall 
in different sections of New York are mainly determined by prox- 
imity to sources of vapor or to vapor-laden air currents, and by the 
character of the local topography. As regards the latter statement, a 
more definite form would be that under similar conditions the pre- 



RAFTER.] ROCKS AND STREAM FLOW. 21 

cipitation is in some degree proportionate to the altitude. This rule, 
while generally true, does not apply to the valley of Hudson River, 
where the upper i^ortion, including the Chaniplain Valley, receives a 
somewhat deficient rainfall as compared with the State as a whole. 
To the west, the Adirondack Plateau receives a marked increase of 
rainfall, while farther northwest there is a decrease in the valley of 
the St. Lawrence. This is also true of the elevated region in the 
vicinity of Hemlock Lake, which, although several hundred feet 
higher, has a rainfall considerably less than that at Rochester. 

In tlie southeastern portion of the State the ocean winds find no 
obstruction along the coast, but, passing inland and meeting the 
abrui)t ranges of the southeastern counties, give a copious rainfall, as 
compared with that of the intervening regions. 

Western New York, on account of the frequent southwesterly direc- 
tion of the winds, receives an appreciable portion of its vapor supply 
from the Gulf of Mexico. The rainfall in central New York, although 
less than that of the southeastern and southwestern highlands, is 
generally abundant. The principal valleys of the Susquehanna sys- 
tem, and also the depression of the central lakes tributary to Oswego 
River, show a deficiency as compared with the average of the State. 

A knowledge of the snowfall is important in a study of the water 
resources, because bj^ reason of the snow lying on the ground con- 
tinuously for several months it is a great source of loss in open regions 
subject to severe winds, the evaporative effect of the mnds tending 
to carry away large quantities of moisture which would otherwise be 
available to maintain stream flow. Thus far the onl}^ data relating 
to depth of snow are those derived from the reports of the State 
meteorological bureau. The following are a few figures so derived: 
In the winter of 1801-92 the total depth of snow at Humphrey, in the 
Western Plateau, was 119.8 inches; in 1890-91 the total depth at 
Cooperstown, in the Eastern Plateau, was 110 inches; in 1891-92 the 
total depth at Con stable ville, in the Northern Plateau, was 170.7 
inches; in the winter of 1890-91, at Utica, in the Mohawk Valley, the 
total depth was 165 inches, and in 1891-92, at the same place, 151.6 
inches. The records show that at the places where these large snow- 
falls occurred the ground was continuously covered with snow for 
several months. If the Avinds were of high velocity at the same time 
the evaporation loss must have been very great. 

ROCKS AND STREAM FLOW. 

Among the principal factors affecting stream flow should be noted 
the structure and texture of the rocks, especiallj^ those of the surface. 
For example, in regions with stiff, heavy, compact soils a much larger 
proportion of the rainfall runs off on the surface, passing immediately 
into the streams, than is the case in regions with open, porous soils or 
extensive sandy areas. A general knowledge of the surface geology 



22 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK^ PART L [no. 24. 

is therefore . desirable in a study of the water resources of the State. 
The relative position and area of the different geologic formations are 
best shown on the large geologic map of 'New York prepared under 
the direction of James Hall, State geologist, by W. J. McGee, and 
printed by the United States Geological Survey in 1894 (scale, about 
5 miles to the inch). A similar but smaller map showing essentially 
the same features was also printed in the same year under authority 
of the regents of the university to accompany the report on the 
mineral exhibit of New York at the World's Columbian Exposition, 
this being on tlie scale of approximately 14 miles to an inch. On exam- 
ining either of these maps one will note the preponderance, so far as 
area is concerned, of two classes of rocks — the ancient crystallines, 
which cover a large area in the northern part of the State, and the 
conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of the Devonian, which form 
the greater part of the Appalachian Plateau, stretching from Lake 
Erie across the State to within a short distance of Hudson River, this 
being the area classified by the State weather bureau as the Eastern 
and Western plateaus. The streams from the northern crystalline 
area undoubtedly furnish the best water supply of the State. This 
may not be due wholly to the character of the rocks, as many other 
factors contribute to this result. 

The sandstones of the Upper Devonian along the northern boundary 
of Pennsylvania are bounded on the north by the long narrow belts of 
outcrop of the underlying rocks stretching in a general easterly and 
westerl}^ direction. The streams pursuing a general northerly course 
pass in succession across these. As a rule, the soils of the region are 
heav}^, with considerable clay, and the rainfall being absorbed some- 
what slowly, a considerable portion of it flows directly into the water 
courses. The primeval forest has for the most part been cut away 
and heavy floods are common, such as those of the Genesee and 
Chemung rivers, described more fully on a later page. 

The only streams of this region on which extensive discharge meas- 
urements have been made are Genesee River and its tributary, Oatka 
Creek. Streams of similar character in western Pennsylvania, how- 
ever, have been measured for a number of years by the Philadelphia 
water department, and the results of these measurements are avail- 
able for comparison and discussion. The results obtained on the 
Pennsylvania streams, the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and Perkiomen, are 
applicable particularly in estimates of the flow of the tributaries of 
Delaware River, rising in New York State, and to the more easterly 
streams which form the Susquehanna. 

The drainage basins of the Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers are 
so highly composite as regards geologic formations and embrace such 
a wide variation in topography and surface geology that no definite 
deductions concerning the effect of the formations on water flow have 
been drawn. The streams of Long Island, rising among the sands, 



RAFTEH.] 



RIVER SYSTEMS. 



23 



tills, and gravels of (comparatively recent, unconsolidated formations, 
offer peculiar conditions, which are discussed on a later page. 

RIVER SYSTEMS. 

The rivers of the State may be classified into seven general systems, 
whose relative position is shown by the accompanying index map, 
fig. 1. These are: 

(1) St. Lawrence sj^stem, which includes all waters draining to Lakes 
Erie and Ontario, and Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers. 




Fig. i.— ludex map of rivers of New York. 

(2) Champlain sj-stem, including all streams in the State tributary 
to Lakes ChamjDlain and George. The Champlain sj^stem is in reality 
a subdivision of the St. Lawrence, but made sej)arate here merel}^ for 
convenience in discussing the river systems of the State. 

(3) Hudson River system, including all streams tributary to the 
Hudson and its main branch, the Mohawk. 

(4) Allegheny River system. 

(5) Susquehanna River system. 

(6) Delaware River sj^stem. 



24 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

(7) The streams of Long Island tributaiy to Long Island Sound and 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

The head waters of the branches of Housatonic River in Connecti- 
cut flow out of the State to the east, while the head waters of Ramapo 
River, in Rockland County, flow from New York into New Jersey. 
These latter are of possible future importance by reason of the neces- 
sity of water for the suppl}^ either of Greater New York or, in the 
case of Ramapo River, also for the municipalities of northern New 
Jersey. Chateaugay River, a tributary of the St. Lawrence, also 
flows northward into the Dominion of Canada. 

ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM. 

This group embraces the streams tributary to Lake Erie, Niagara 
River, Lake Ontario, and St. Lawrence River. On the extreme south- 
west, in Chautauqua County, the watershed line approaches within a 
few miles of Lake Erie, but at an elevation of several hundred feet 
above, and as a consequence the streams are short and rapid. A 
small amount of power is developed on Chautauqua Creek at West- 
field, and on Canadaway Creek near Fredonia. Cattaraugus, Buf- 
falo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks may also be mentioned 
as tributaries of Lakes Erie and Ontario and Niagara River in west- 
ern New York. Buft'alo Creek is important as forming a large portion 
of Buffalo Harbor at its mouth. Tonawanda Creek, which flows into 
Niagara River at Tonawanda, is used for several miles as a part of 
Erie Canal. This stream is sluggish throughout nearly its whole 
course and affords only a small amount of power. The water supply 
of the village of Attica is taken from its head waters. . 

NIAGARA RIVER. 

Niagara River»f orms a portion of the boundary between the Domin- 
ion of Canada and the State of New York. The difference in elevation 
between Lakes Erie and Ontario is, approximately, 336 feet, of which 
about 160 feet are at Niagara Falls. Between Lake Erie and Niagara 
Falls the river divides into two channels around Grand Island, which 
is 10 miles long and 4 or 5 miles wide. The general course of the 
river is from south to north, but in passing around Grand Island the 
eastern channel bends westward, and for 3 miles from the foot of 
the island the course of the river is west. 

Goat Island lies at the foot of this westerly stretch. On the New 
York side the American channel finds its way around the island to 
the American Falls, which break over the rough ledge at right angles 
to the main river. The Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian side, are 
about 3,000 feet higher up and lie between the west end of Goat Island 
and the Canadian shore. At the Canadian Falls the main river again 
turns to the north and pursues that general course to Lake Ontario. 

The elevation of the water surface at the head of the rapids above 
the falls is 560 feet above tide water, thus giving a fall from the Lake 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. Ill 

^=-2 




SCALE OF' fvt/i.ES NEVVYO 

f ^ 1 f ? T ? rp V f 



DRAINAGE AREA OF THE GENESEE RIVER. 



RAFTER.] GENESEE RIVER. 25 

Erie level to that point of from 12 to 13 feet, of which from 4 to 5 feet 
are included in the rapids at the city of Buffalo, in front of and just 
below Fort Porter. The descent in the river from the head of the 
rapids to the brink of the falls is about 50 feet. At the narrows, half 
a mile above the whirlpool, the elevation of the water surface is 300 
feet, while that of the surface of the still water opposite Lewiston is 
249 feet; the fall in this section, which is from 4 to 4.5 miles in length, 
may therefore be taken at 51 feet, while from Lewiston to the mouth 
at Fort Niagara the fall is onl}^ 2 feet in a distance of 7 miles. The 
total length of Niagara River is about 37 miles. 

On account of the immense water-power developments now taking 
place at Niagara Falls the run-off of Niagara River must necessarily 
receive extended discussion in a complete account of the water 
resources of New York. 

GENESEE RIVER. 

Genesee River, as shown on PI. Ill, issues from the highlands of 
the Allegheny Plateau in Potter County, Pennsylvania, a few miles 
south of the New York State boundary. Entering Allegany County, 
it first runs northwesterly for upward of 30 miles to near the village 
of Canadea, at which point it turns northeasterly, this direction being 
generally maintained to the mouth. It flows entirely across the county 
of Allegany and then for several miles forms the boundary between 
Livingston and Wyoming counties, after which it crosses the north- 
east part of Livingston into Monroe County, through which it con- 
tinues to its mouth at Charlotte. Above Portage its course from the 
State line is chiefly through an alluvial valley. 

From Portage to Mount Morris the river flows through a deep and 
in some i)laces narrow canyon for a distance of over 20 miles. The 
Portage Falls, with a total descent including the intervening rapids 
of about 330 feet, are at the head of this canyon. The Upper Portage 
Falls have a descent, including the rapids, of about 70 feet. Half a 
mile below are the Middle Falls, shown on PI. IV, with a descent of 
110 feet; while 2 miles below begin the Lower Falls, consisting of a 
series of rapids about half a mile long with an aggregate fall of 150 
feet. These three falls may be taken as aggregating about 270 feet, 
exclusive of the rapids. At present no power developments exist. 
Formerly a sawmill was located at the Middle Falls, but on account 
of the extinction of the lumber business on the stream it has not been 
operated for many years. 

At Mount Morris, Genesee River issues into a broad, level, alluvial 
valley from 1 to 2 miles Avide, Avhich continues to near Rochester, 
where there is a descent of 203 feet in about 3 miles. The Upper 
Falls at Rochester, 90 feet in height, are a cataract in the Niagara 
limestone, while at the Lower Falls, 94 feet in height, shown on PI. 
V, the Medina sandstone appears. 

The principal tributaries of Genesee River are Canaseraga, Hone- 



26 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



oye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka, Black, and Wiscoy 
creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, and Hemlock lakes are 
tributary to the Honeoye Creek, and Conesus Lake to Conesus Creek. 
Silver Lake is another small body of water in the Genesee Basin and 
tributary to the river by the Silver Lake outlet. Canaseraga Creek 
joins Genesee River near Mount Morris. From Dansville to its mouth, 
a distance of 16 miles, this creek flows through a broad alluvial val- 
ley with very little fall. Above Dansville the stream is more rapid, 
but the comparatively small, deforested drainage area limits its value 
for water power, Honeoye Creek, which is the outlet of Honeoye, 
Canadice, and Hemlock lakes, furnishes some water power. There 
are also several mills on the outlet of Conesus Lake. 

Formerly there were a number of mills on the Silver Lake outlet, 
but changed business conditions have led to their decay. The other 
tributaries of the Genesee have little significance as mill streams. It 
appears, then, that the two places of importance on Genesee River, 
from the water-power point of view, are Portage and Rochester. 
These will be discussed in detail farther on. 

The following table gives the detail of the several subdivisions of 
the drainage area of Genesee River : 

Drainage areas, in square miles, of tributaries of Genesee River. 



Creek. 



Cryder... 

Chenunda . - 

Dykes 

Vandemarck _ 

Knights 

Phillips 

Van Campens 

Angelica 

White 

Black 

Crawford 

Caneadea 

Cold 

Rush 

Wiscoy _ _ - _ 

Wolf 

Silver Lake . . 
Coshaqua - - 
Canaseraga . . 

Beards 

Conesus Lake 

Honeoye 

Aliens 

Black 



Drainage 
area. 


Area above 
mouth. 


43.3 


99.9 


30.0 


181.0 


68.3 


214.0 


21.6 


301.3 


22.3 


323. 9 


32.3 


372.8 


55.7 


410.4 


82.1 


481.1 


15.9 


569.2 


31.1 


595.5 


11.8 


637.6 


63.3 


651.0 


41.0 


745.3 


35.3 


787.0 


108.6 


833.6 


19.3 


974.9 


30.4 


1,029.2 


82.0 


1,059.6 


258.7 


1,148.4 


41.3 


1,423.1 


88.8 


1,555.5 


262.6 


1,675.9 


198.1 


1,947.1 


211.8 


2,168.5 



Area below 
mouth. 



143. 2 
211.0 
282.3 
322.9 
346. 2 
405.1 
466.1 



563 

585, 

626 

649 

714 

786 

822.3 

942.2 

994.2 

059.6 

141.6 

407. 1 
464.4 
643.9 
938.5 

145. 2 
380.0 



The total drainage area of Genesee River at its mouth is 2,445.6 
square miles. 




A. UPPER AND MIDDLE FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT PORTAGE. 




B. GENESEE RIVER CANYON BELOW MIDDLE FALLS AT PORTAGE, 



RAFTER.] 



OSWEGO RIVER. 



27 



The following tabulation gives tlie elevation of Genesee River at 
various points. 

Elevatio7i above tide water of Genesee River at various points. 

Feet. 

Mean surface of Lake Ontario , . 247 

Crest of the feeder dam in south part of the city of Rochester 510 

Low-water surface of river at New York, Lake Erie and Western Railway 

bridge near Avon . . . 538 

Crest of old Mount Morris power dam 605 

Water surface just above Upper Falls at Portage . 1 , 080 

Water surface at New York. Lake Erie and Western Railway bridge near 

Belvidere , ..1,333 

The extreme head waters in Potter County, Pennsylvania, are stated 
to be considerably over 2,000 feet above tide. 

OSWEGO RIVER. 

Oswego River flows into Lake Ontario at the G\tj of Oswego. Its 
basin includes the more important of the inland lakes of western New 
York. Taking the lakes of the Oswego River Basin in order from 
west to east, their names, elevations above tide, area of water surface, 
and tributary drainage area at the foot of each lake are as follows : 

Elevation and area of lakes of the Oswego River Basin. 



Lake. 


Elevation 
above tide. 


Area. 


Drainage 
area. 


Canandaigua 

Keuka 

Seneca 

Cayuga .. 

Oswaco 


Feet. 

687.0 

720.0 

443.0 

380.0 

710.0 

867.0 

784.0 

364.0 

900.0 

370.0 


Sq. miles. 

18.6 

20.3 

66.0 

66.8 

12.4 

12.8 

3.0 

4.0 

2.8 

80.9 


Sq. miles. 

175.0 

187.0 

707.0 

1,593.0 

208.0 

73.0 

41.0 

267.0 

9.0 

1,300.0 


Skaneateles ...... 


Otisco . 

Onondaga 


Gazenovia 

Oneida 





The following are the drainage areas of Oswego River and its prin- 
cipal tributaries : 

Drainage areas of Oswego River and principal tributaries. 

Sq. miles. 

Oswego River at mouth .. 5, 013 

Below junction of Seneca and Oneida rivers - 4, 868 

Oneida River 1, 420 

Seneca River - - 3, 450 



28 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

The subdivisions of the dainage area of Seneca River are as 
follows : 

Subdivisions of drainage area of Seneca River. 

Sq. miles. 

At junction with Oneida River - 3, 450 

At Baldwinsville _ 3, 136 

At Montezuma 2, 472 

Below Cayuga Lake 1,593 

At entrance to Cayuga Lake _ . . . 780 

At Seneca Falls :.\... .. 771 

Waterloo 745 

At foot of Seneca Lake 707 

Keuka Lake Outlet 213 

Catherines Creek 94 

The drainage areas of Cayuga Lake and its tributaries are as follows : 

Drainage areas of Cayuga Lake and tributaries. 

Sq. miles. 

At outlet 813 

Cayuga Inlet, including Cascadilla Creek 173 

Fall Creek, not including Cascadilla Creek_ . .. 152 

Salmon Creek 90 

Taughanic Creek 60 

Clyde River, a tributary of Seneca River, is formed by the junction 
of Canandaigua Outlet and Mud Creek. The latter stream rises in 
the southern part of Ontario County and flows first north and then 
east, uniting with Canandaigua Outlet at Lyons. Clyde River joins 
Seneca River at Montezuma. The following are the drainage areas 
of Clyde River and tributaries : 

Drainage areas of Clyde River and tributaries. 

Sq. miles. 

At mouth . 869 

AtClyde 807 

At Lyons, at junction of Canandaigua Outlet and Mud Creek. . . 729 

Mud Creek at Lyons - . _ - . . . 298 

Canandaigua Outlet at junction with Mud Creek . 431 

Canandaigua Outlet at Phelps _ . 390 

Canandaigua Lake at foot . . 175 

Canandaigua Inlet , . . 85 

Owasco Lake discharges into Seneca River through an outlet 15 
miles in length. The following are the drainage areas of Owasco 
Outlet: 

Drainage areas of Oivaseo Outlet. 

Sq. miles. 

At mouth 230 

At Auburn 212 

Owasco Lake at foot _ 208 

Owasco Inlet , 120 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. V 




MIDDLE AND LOWER FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT ROCHESTER. 



RAFTER.] BLACK RIVER. 21) 

The drainage areas of Oneida River and its principal tributaries 
are as follows: 

Drainage areas of Oneida River and principal tributaries. 

Sq. miles. 

Oneida River at mouth 1 , 420 

Oneida Lake at foot - - - 1, 800 

FishCreek - -. - 480 

Chittenango Creek, including Cazenovia Lake 306 

OneidaCreek 128 

The Oswego River and its tributaries furnish a large number of 
water powers, the detail of which may be obtained from the Report 
on Water Power of the United States, Tenth Census of the United 
States, 1880. Very little can be added to the statements in that report. 

The next stream of any importance tributary to Lake Ontario is 
Big Salmon River, which rises in the highlands of Lewis County and 
flows westerly into Lake Ontario. This stream was extensively con- 
sidered several years ago as the source of water supply for the city of 
Syracuse, the water to be taken at a point about 40 miles distant from 
the city. Its watershed above the proposed point of diversion com- 
prises 70 square miles of forest land at an elevation of from 1,000 to 
1,500 feet above tide water. 

BLACK RIVER. 

Between Big Salmon River and the mouth of Black River there are 
a number of small streams flowing into Lake Ontario, none of w^hich 
are of special importance. We may therefore pass to a brief descrip- 
tion of Black River. This stream rises in the western i3art of Ham- 
ilton County and pursues a southwesterly direction, passing across 
Herkimer County into Oneida County; it then bends to somewhat 
west of north through Lewis County, but soon after passing the north- 
westerly boundary of that county it changes to a general westerly 
course, flowing into Black River Bay at the extreme eastern end of 
Lake Ontario. Extensive water-power developments are in use on 
this stream and its tributaries, at Watertown, Lyons Falls, Carthage, 
Black River, Brownville, Dexter, and other points. There are also a 
number of State reservoirs on the head waters which will be discussed 
in detail later. The following gives the elevation in feet of the main 
points on Black River above tide water, according to the best avail- 
able information. 

Altitude of points along Black River. 

Feet. 

Atmouth 247 

Watertown, west line of city _ . . 870 

Watertown at head of falls. 492 

Carthage at foot of rapids 669 

Carthage at crest of State dam 724 



30 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

Altitude of points along Black River — Continued. 

Feet. 

Lyons Falls at foot 733 

Lyons Falls, crest of State dam 802 

Forestport, crest of State dam 1, 129 

North Branch reservoir .... 1, 821 

Chub Lake 1, 599 

Woodhull reservoir 1, 854 

South Branch reservoir ... 2,019 

Moose River at mouth . 802 

First Lake, Fulton Chain • 1,684 

Second Lake 1,684 

Third Lake.-, 1,685 

Fourth Lake . 1,687 

Fifth Lake 1,691 

Sixth Lake 1,760 

Seventh Lake : ^: . 1,762 

Eighth Lake 1,803 

Little Moose Lake ._ - _. 1,772 

Big Moose Lake 1, 787 

Beaver River at mouth 724 

Beaver Lake at Number Four. . . . , 1 , 436 

The drainage areas of lUaek River aud its tributaries, in square 
miles, are as follows : 

Drainage areas of Black River and tributaries. 

Sq. miles. 

Black River at mouth .... 1,860 

At Watertown ..1,820 

At Carthage . 1,741 

At Lyons Falls below Moose River 810 

Forestport 275 

Above mouth of Sawmill Creek .. . .,. 174 

Deer River 107 

Beaver River. . . . . 365 

LovellCreek 34 

Independence Creek . . . . , 90 

Martins Creek 29 

Otter Creek 60 

Moose River ... 349 

Sugar River . . . 66 

STREAMS FLOWING INTO ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 

Proceeding along St. Lawrence River we find a number of streams, 
such as the Oswegatcliie, which flows into the St. Lawrence at Ogdens- 
burg; the Grass, which enters the St. Lawrence near the north line 
of the State; the Raquette and St. Regis, flowing into the St. Law- 
rence a short distance below the Grass, and finally the Chateaugay, 
which flows from this State into the Dominion of Canada and thence 
into the St. Lawrence. These streams all head in and about the 
Adirondack Plateau and, as a rule, fall rapidly from their sources to 
near their mouths, affording large water powers, which thus far have 



RAFTER.] 



LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 



31 



been chiefly utilized for pulp ii^rindiug-, paper uiakini*-, and sawing 
lumber. 

There is a lack of definite information in regard to all the streams 
of the northern part of the State. No detailed surveys of this region 
have been made. Partial reservoir sj^stems have been constructed 
on Oswegatchie, Grass, and Raquette rivers. Some of the economic 
questions involved in the construction of these reservoirs will be dis- 
cussed in Part II of this paper, Water-Supply Paper No. 25. 

So far as can be learned, no measurements have been made of any 
of the streams tributary to St. Lawrence River proper. It is probable, 
however, that they are the best water-yielding streams of the State, 
because they flow from the great northern forest, and because their 
head waters are in the extensive lake region which lies immediately 
west of the main Adirondack Mountains, and which extends westward 
from the base of the main range to the borders of the forest, a dis- 
tance of nearly 50 miles. This portion of the Adirondack Plateau is 
comparatively level. As regards geographic distribution, these lakes 
are most numerous in the northern parts of Herkimer and Hamilton 
counties and the southern parts of St. Lawrence and Franklin coun- 
ties. Those in Herkimer County flow into Moose and Beaver rivers, 
tributaries of Black River. The following are the elevations of a few 
of the more important lakes of Hamilton, St. Lawrence, and Franklin 
counties, which are tributary to streams flowing northward into the 
St. LaAvrence: 

Elevations of impoy^tant lakes of Hamilton, St. Lawrence, and Franklin counties. 



Lake. 



Cranberry . . . 

Raquette 

Forked 

Long 

Little Tupper 
Big Tupper . . 




LAKE CHAMPLAIN SYSTEM. 



Lake Champlain has a water area of 400 square miles. The area 
of its watershed in New York State amounts to 2,950 square miles, in 
Vermont to 4,270 square miles, and in the Province of Quebec to 740 
square miles. The total area of watershed, not including water sur- 
face, is 7,960 square miles, or the total area of the drainage basin, 
including water surface, is 8,300 square miles. Lake Champlain is 
considered as beginning at Whitehall and terminating at St. Johns, 
on the Richelieu. Its length is 125 miles and its breadth in the 



32 WATER RESOUKCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

northern portion about 13 miles. The standard low- water elevation 
is given at 95.03 feet, and standard high water at 103.78 feet, above 
tide. 

The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are Big Chazy, Little 
Chazy, Saranac, Salmon, Little Ausable, Big Au sable, and Bouquet 
rivers and the outlet of Lake George. There are also a few small 
streams of no special importance. 

The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are, as a rule, not of 
great length, but rising, as they nearly all do, in or near the high 
mountains of the Northern Plateau they have a rapid descent with 
an abundant fall. For illustration we may refer to the Saranac River, 
which has, by the county maps of Bien's Atlas, a length of about 55 
miles from its mouth to Lower Saranac Lake. The elevation of Lake 
Champlain above tide water is 101 feet, while that of Lower Saranac 
Lake is given at 1,539 feet. Hence the fall in 55 miles of river course 
is 1,438 feet. Middle Saranac Lake lies at an elevation of 1,542 feet 
and Upper Saranac at 1,557 feet. 

In the case of Ausable River we find a distance by the course of 
the river of about 40 miles from its mouth to Lake Placid, the eleva- 
tion of that body of water being 1,864 feet above tide, or 1,763 above 
Lake Champlain; or, taking the distance by that fork of Ausable 
River which leads to Ausable Lakes, the distance is about 42 miles 
to Lower Ausable Lake, the elevation of which is 1,961 feet above 
tide; hence we have a fall in this stream of 1,860 feet in a little over 
40 miles. The water power of the several streams tributary to Lake 
Champlain has been extensively developed at Plattsburg and other 
points, as indicated by the tabulations relating to pulp, paper, and 
lumber interests. 

The most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain of any importance 
for water purposes is the outlet of Lake George, which in about 2 
miles has a fall of 222 feet. The greater portion of this is concen- 
trated in the first mile from the lake. The elevation of Lake George 
above tide water is 323 feet. The area of the lake surface is stated 
at 50 square miles, and the tributary drainage area above the foot of 
the lake at 238 square miles. In the absence of accurate topographic 
maps the drainage area of Lake George, like that of most of the other 
streams considered, can be given only approximately. 

As will be shown later, the streams in eastern New York can not be 
depended on to furnish a natural flow of more that about 0.3 cubic 
foot per square mile per second as a minimum in a dry year. On 
account of the large water surface of Lake George in proportion to 
the drainage area, it is possible, by utilizing the storage on the lake 
surface, to realize a much larger quantity.- From 0.7 to 0.8 cubic 
foot per second per square mile may be assumed as a conservative 
estimate, the results being based on allowing the water to flow out 
of the lake 24 hours per day for only 310 days in the year. On this 



BAFTKK] HUDSON RIVER. 33 

basis we may assume a mean flow for minimum dry years of about 
200 cubic feet per second. Since the entire 222-foot fall of the Lake 
George Outlet is now utilized, we may place the permanent power in 
a dry year at about 5,000 gross horsepower. The village of Ticon- 
deroga, at which this power is all utilized, had a i^opulation in 1890 
of 2,267. 

Wood Creek, the most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain, is 
of interest in a study of the water resources of New York, chiefly 
because of its relations to Champlain Canal, its channel being utilized 
for several miles as part of the canal. At Fort Ann there is con- 
siderable power developed on one of its tributaries, used at present 
for grinding pulp. 

HUDSON RIVER SYSTEM. 

Hudson River, with its principal tributar}^ the Mohawk, is the most 
important river of the State. From its mouth to Troy, a distance of 
over 150 miles, it is a great inland estuary subject to tidal action, 
and because of its great length and. the large fresh-water inflow it is 
unique among inland estuaries. From the first landing of the Dutch 
on Manhattan Island to the present time it has been an important 
channel of commerce. On his voyage of discovery in 1609, Hendrik 
Hudson ascended to the head of tide water, and doubtless discerned 
the possibilities of future settlement which were so soon realized at 
Albany, Waterford, and Schenectady. The tidal action of Hudson 
River originally terminated at the rapids above Troy, but its present 
termination is a few miles below, at the Troy dam, a structure erected 
about 1820 as a part of the State canal system. There is a lock at 
the east end of this dam through which canal boats pass into the pool 
above, thus enabling them to reach Lansingburg on the east side of 
the river, or Waterford on the west side, where they may enter 
Champlain Canal. 

Below Troy the tributaries of Hudson River are mostly small and 
generally not of very great importance, although some of them have 
considerable power development. One of them, Croton River, is the 
principal source of Avater supplj^ of the city of New York. On this 
part of the river the drainage basin is rather narrow, and many of 
the streams issuing from the highlands at either side have such small 
drainage areas as to carry only moderate quantities of water. In 
descending the river from Troy the principal streams are, on the west 
side, Normankill, Catskill, Esopus, and Rondout creeks, and on the 
east side Kinderhook, Wappinger, and Fishkill creeks and Croton 
River. Harlem River, connecting the Hudson with East River, may 
be mentioned, in view of its value to navigation interests, as an impor- 
tant feature of the water resources of New York. 

The following are the elevations of mean tide, mean low tide, and 
mean high tide above mean sea level at New York, and the mean rise 
IRR 24 3 



34 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



and fall of tides at various points along the tidal estuary between 
New York Bay and the Troy dam : 

Mean tidal elevations in feet at various points between New York Bay and Troy dam. 



Locality. 


Mean tide. 


Mean low- 
tide 


Mean high 
tide. 


Mean rise 
and fall. 


Sandy Hook 








4.70 
4.40 
3.60 
3.70 
3.42 
2.87 
2.53 
2.33 
2.32 
1.94 
0.80 


Governors Island 

Dobbs Ferry 


0.00 
0.18 
1.68 
1.73 

1.88 
2.09 
2.13 
2.43 

2.78 

3.77 


2.20 
1.62 
0.17 
0.02 
0.44 
0.82 
0.82 
1.27 
1.81 
3.37 


2.20 
1.98 
3.53 
- 3.44 
3.31 
3.35 
3.29 
3.59 
3.75 
4.17 


Coxsackie light-house . 

New Baltimore. . . 

Colymans 


Castleton 


Van Wies 


Albany 


Nail works . , 


Troy dam _ . _ . . 





The most important tributaries begin above Troy. Ascending on 
the west side we find Mohawk River, the outlet of Saratoga Lake, 
Sacundaga River, Stony and North creeks, and Indian and Cedar 
rivers. On the east side there are Hoosic, Battenkill, Schroon, and 
Boreas rivers. Above the mouth of Cedar River the main North or 
Hudson River is considered to extend to and beyond Lake Sanford, 
including Opalescent River and the streams issuing from the high 
Adirondacks. 

The following gives the height above tide water at New York of a 
number of points on Hudson River. 



Height above tide water at New York of points on Hudson River. 

Feet. 

New York (at mouth) , 0.0 

Troy... 3.8 

Saratoga dam (crest) - - . 102. 

Fort Edward (below dam) 118. 

Glens Falls (crest of feeder dam) . . 284. 

Mouth of Sacundaga River 556. 

Mouth of Stony Creek 584.0 

Mouth of Schroon River 608.0 

At Glen Bridge 728.0 

At Riverside Bridge 875.0 

At North Creek Bridge 998.0 

At North River 1,050.0 

Mouth of Boreas River 1,140.0 

Mouth of Indian River ..-•-. 1, 415. 

Mouth of Cedar River .--.- 1,460.0 

Lake Sanford 1,723.0 



RAFTER.] HUDSON RIVER SYSTEM. 35 

MOHAWK RIVER. 

Mohawk River, the most important tributary of the Hudson, rises 
in the western-central part of the State, near the Lewis and Oneida 
county line. It flows in a southerly direction to the city of Rome, 
from which it takes an easterly course across the State, emptying into 
the Hudson a little above Troy. The principal tributaries are Scho- 
harie, East Canada, West Canada, and Oriskany creeks. 

The following are the elevations above tide Avater of a number of 
points along Mohawk River : 



Elevations of points along Mohawk River. 

Feet. 

At mouth - 12 

Lower Mohawk Aqueduct 162 

Schenectady 214 

Mouth of Schoharie Creek 270 

At Rome, above feeder dam 431 

There are two principal falls of Mohawk River, the Great Falls at 
Cohoes and the Little Falls at the city of the same name, where are 
found the onty important Avater powers thus far developed on tliis 
stream. At Cohoes are the Great Falls, about 120 feet in height, on 
which the Cohoes Company has developed about 105 feet. At Little 
Falls there is a total fall of about 45 feet occurring in a little over half 
a mile. Of this, from 38 to 40 feet are utilized by three dams. Aside 
from a small amount of power developed below Cohoes, just above 
the "sprouts" of the Mohawk, there are no water-^jower developments 
on the stream other than those of Cohoes and Little Falls, except a 
few unimportant mills on the extreme head waters. The waterworks 
of the city of Rome, at Ridge Mills, 2 miles north of Rome, Avhere a 
water-power pumping system is in use, may, however, be mentioned. 

The following are the principal subdivisions of the drainage areas 
of MoliaAvk River : 

Subdivisions of drainage area of Mohaick River. 

Sq, miles. 

At mouth 3,400 

Below mouth of Schoharie Creek 3, 100 

At Little Falls 1,275 

At Utica. 524 

At Rome ._. 184 

SCHOHARIE CREEK. 

Schoharie Creek rises in the southern part of Greene County, whence 
it flows 18 miles northwesterly and then northerly about 50 miles to 
the Mohawk. The principal subdivisions of the drainage area are as 

follows : 

Subdivisions of drainage area of Schoharie Creek. 

Sq. miles. 

At mouth 947 

Central Bridge . _ 684 

Gilboa „ 308 



36 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

The drainage area of Seholiarie Creek comprises the greater part of 
Schoharie County and portions of Greene, Albany, Delaware, Otsego, 
Montgomery, and Schenectady counties. Its head waters drain the 
western and northern slopes of the Catskill Mountains. At Central 
Bridge, about 19 miles from the mouth of the creek, the water surface 
is 560 feet above tide water; at the mouth the elevation is 274 feet. 
In spite of this large fall Schoharie Creek is not considered especially 
valuable for water-power development. It is sub j ect to great extremes 
of flood • and low- water flow. This is probably explainable by the 
nearly complete cutting off of the forests from the drainage area many 
years ago. The water powers thus far developed in the Schoharie 
Creek Basin are nearly all small and unimportant. 

EAST CANADA CREEK. 

The second important tributary of the Mohawk is East Canada 
Creek, which rises in the southwestern part of Hamilton County and 
flows southerly, joining the Mohawk at East Creek, about 7 miles 
from Little Falls. According to a map furnished by Stephen E. 
Babeock, of Little Falls, the total drainage area of East Canada 
Creek is 285.7 square miles, of which 58.2 square miles are in Hamil- 
ton County, 98.4 square miles in Herkimer County, 128 square miles 
in Fulton County, and 1.1 square miles in Montgomery County. Fol- 
lowing are the elevations of principal points on East Canada Creek: 

Elevations of principal points on East Canada Creek. 

Feet. 

Bottom of Beardslee Falls near mouth 

Top of Beardslee Falls : 105 

Bottom of High Falls. 337 

Top of High Falls 379 

Crest of dam at Dolgeville . . 445 

Mouth of Spruce Creek 477 

Mouth of Fish Creek , .♦.....-. 559 

Emmonsburg . _ . 646 

Stratford 720 

Oregon 1 , 140 

The distance from the mouth of the stream to Oregon is about 25 
miles. 

The principal tributary of East Canada Creek is Fish Creek, which 
is the outlet of the East Canada lakes. The distance from its point 
of junction with East Canada Creek to the mouth of the Canada lakes 
outlet is about 9 miles, and the total rise in this distance 635 feet. 
The outlet of the lakes, which is nearly level, is about 3.5 miles long. 
There are no falls of any magnitude on this creek. For the first 5 
miles from its mouth Fish Creek rises 245 feet, and from that point 
to the mouth of the outlet of the East Canada lakes, a distance of 4 
miles, the rise is 390 feet. 



RAFTER.] 



EAST CANADA CREEK. 



37 



The second tributary of East Canada Creek is Spruce Creek, which 
has a total length from its mouth to its head in the Eaton Millpond 
of about 8.7 miles, the total rise in this distance being about ooO feet. 
Just below the Eaton Millpond there is a fall of 180 feet in 2,000 feet. 
At Salisbury Center, Spruce Creek falls 85 feet in about 900 feet. 
Aside from the development at Dolgeville, and small developments 
at Beardslee Falls and at one or two other points, very little use lias 
thus far been made of the water power of East Canada Creek. It is 
probable, however, that within a few years the water power of this 
stream will be nearly all utilized. 

According to a manuscript report on the water power of East Can- 
ada Creek, b}^ S. E. Babcock, the fall in this stream for the first 1,500 
feet from its junction with Mohaw^k River is very slight. At this 
point the first rapids are encountered, where it has been proposed to 
develop a water power, with a head of about 60 to 70 feet. About 
1,000 to 1,200 feet farther upstream there is an additional fall of from 
30 to 40 feet. This takes us to the top of the so-called Beardslee 
Falls, referred to above. 

It has also been proposed to construct an extensive system of jDower 
development by a series of dams on East Canada Creek, some of the 
details of which may be gathered from the following table : 

Plan of power development on East Canada Creek. 



Location. 



Twin Bridges 

Green street 

Factory 

Intermediate 

High Falls 

No. 1 (below High Falls) 
No. 2 (below High Falls) 
No. 1 (Ingham's mill) . , . 
No. 2 (Ingham's mill) . . _ 
Beardslee Falls 

Totals and mean . . 



Head 
(in feet). 



43 
26 

29 
22 

72 
74 
34 
44 
44 
105 



423 



Horse- 
power. 



1,172 
1,023 
1,141 
865 
2,700 
2,956 
1,360 
1,778 
1,778 
5, 112 



19, 885 



Estimated 

cost. 



$108, 427 

73, 667 

30, 910 

46, 090 

56, 320 

125, 092 

56, 408 

135, 410 

129, 800 

128, 326 



890, 450 



Cost per 
horse- 
power. 



l;92. 51 
72.01 
27.10 
53.28 
20.86 
42. 40 
41.40 
76.16 
73.00 
25.10 



44.80 



This plan of power development further includes the construction of 
a storage of 1,250,000,000 cubic feet, which is estimated to cost $148,000, 
making a total for the whole development of 151,038,450. With these 
figures the final cost per net horsepow^er becomes ^52.22. The esti- 
mates leading to this result include cost of land to be flooded, masonry 
of dams and head works, turbine water wheels, flumes and head feed- 
ers, tail raceways, waste gates, power stations, racks, engineering 



38 WATER RESOUECES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART 1. [no. 24 

and superintendence, etc. So far as the actual power developments 
are concerned, the work can probably be constructed for the esti- 
mates, but the cost of the storage is, in the author's opinion, some- 
what too low. The total number of dams which it is proposed to 
build is stated at 40, thus giving an average of only $3,700 per dam. 
This sum would only build timber dams of the most temporary char- 
acter. The proper operation and repairs of this number of dams, 
scattered over an area of 200 square miles, would entail in the end an 
annual expense of $30,000, which is the annual interest at 5 per cent 
on 1600,000. To obtain the real capitalized cost we need then to add 
$600,000, which gives an amended total of $1,638,450, whence the cost 
per net horsepower for the entire system would become 182.40. 

At present an electric-power station is in process of installation 
by the Dolgeville Electric Light and Power Company at the high falls 
just below Dolgeville, shown on PI. YI, by which it is expected to 
develop 1,200 net horsepower. The wheels to be set are two twin 
horizontal 36-inch Victor special wheels, to work under a 72-foot 
head, and which are claimed by the manufacturers to yield, at full 
capacity, 600 net horsepower each. A portion of the power gener- 
ated at this station is to be used at Dolgeville for manufacturing, 
and the balance, it is stated, will be transmitted to Little Falls, 8 
miles distant. 

Dolgeville is the seat of the piano-felt and other industries estab- 
lished by Alfred Dolge & Son. The jjower for the establishments 
now in operation is derived from two 35-inch Victor turbines, work- 
ing under a 25-foot head, and rated by the manufacturers to furnish, 
when running at full capacity, 229 net horsepower each, or a total of 
458 horsepower. According to the manufacturer's catalogue, these 
wheels will consume 197 cubic feet per second when working at full 
capacity, and th^ statement is made that they are ordinarily so 
worked. The drainage area of East Canada Creek above Dolgeville 
is about 250 square miles; hence the present development is based 
upon a minimum flow of 0.79 cubic foot per second per square mile. 
As there is very little pondage at Dolgeville, it may be assumed that 
the power is sometimes short in a dry season, although the effect of 
the pondage of the large number of lakes and ponds on the head 
waters of East Canada Creek will undoubtedly be to increase con- 
siderably the minimum flow. • 

WEST CANADA CREEK. 

West Canada Creek, the third important tributary of the Mohawk, 
rises near the center of Hamilton County and flows southwesterly 
about 40 miles, by general course, to the eastern edge of the town of 
Trenton, in Oneida County, where it turns and first runs southeast- 
erly and then southerly for a total distance of 20 miles, finally empty- 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. 




A. DAM AT HIGH FALLS OF EAST CANADA CREEK. 




B HIGH FALLS AT TRENTON, ON WEST CANADA CREEK. 



RAFTER.] WEST CANADA CREEK. 39 

ing into the Mohawk at the village of Herkimer. The total drainage 
area above Herkimer is given as 548 square miles. This creek has 
its source in the Canada lakes, which are about 40 miles northeast 
from the village of Prospect. These lakes are known separately as 
the AVest, Middle, and East Canada. The principal lake of this 
series has an elevatk)n of 2,348 feet above tide water. The drainage 
area at the village of Prospect, Avhere there is a natural fall of about 
22 feet, is 375 square miles. At Trenton Falls, 3 miles below, the 
stream descends about 200 feet in half a mile. Ascending the stream, 
the principal falls, in order, are: Sherman Falls, 24 feet; High Falls 
(shown in PI. VI), 105 feet; Mill Dam Falls, 14 feet; Suydam Falls, 12 
feet. 

According to a report made by AVallace C. Johnson, under date 
of March 17, 1896, to the Trenton Falls Power Comi3any, it appears 
that of the 375 square miles of drainage area above Prospect about 
175 square miles lie at an elevation of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet 
above tide water, the average elevation of this i^ortiou being about 
2,500 feet. Of the remaining 200 square miles above Prospect the 
average elevation is placed at not less than 1,600 feet. The Trenton 
Falls Power Company is reported as intending to develop an exten- 
sive storage on the head waters of this stream, thus enabling it to iDro- 
duce several thousand electrical horsepower at Trenton Falls for 
transmission to Utica, Rome, and other towns in the vicinity. Gen- 
eral plans have been prepared by Mr. Johnson, but the details of the 
project are not at hand. Judging from the data at hand, the author 
is disposed to place the minimum flow of West Canada Creek at from 
0.30 to 0.35 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 

Water powers are now in use on West Canada Creek at Herkimer, 
Middle ville, Newport, and Prospect, as well as at a few points higher up. 

Parties interested in the development of an extensive power project 
at Trenton Falls have claimed that a very large storage reservoir 
could be constructed in the main valley of West Canada Creek a 
short distance above ProsiDCct, and at very low cost X3er unit volume 
stored. The data are not at hand for accuratel}' determining the cost 
of a reservoir at this place. However, casual inspection of the Rem- 
sen sheet of the topographic map of the State, made in 1897, shows 
that such a reservoir would probably be expensive in j)roportion to 
the storage gained. A trial estimate shows that with a dam from 80 
to 100 feet in height a storage of about 2,000,000,000 cubic feet may 
be obtained. The cost of the dam necessar}^ to store this quantity of 
water can hardly be placed as an experimental figure at less than 
$1,000,000, whence the cost per 1,000,000 cubic feet stored would 
become 1500. This approximate estimate has no other significance 
than to indicate the importance of studying large reservoir jDrojects 
in detail before deciding as to their feasibility. 



40 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24, 



OTHER TRIBUTARIES OF MOHAWK RIVER. 

As less important tributaries of the Mohawk, Sauquoit and Oris- 
kany creeks may be mentioned. Sauquoit Creek rises in the south- 
eastern part of Oneida County and runs northerlj- , emptying into the 
Mohawk about 2 miles west of Utica. Its drainage area is ^iven as 
62 square miles. Oriskanj^ Creek rises in the eastern-southerly por- 
tion of Madison County and flows northerly into the Mohawk 6 miles 
west of Utica. Its drainage area is given as 135 square miles. There 
is considerable water power developed on both Sauquoit and Oriskany 
creeks. 

HOOSIC RIVER. 

The most important tributary of the Hudson from the east is Hoosic 
River, which rises in the mountains of Berkshire Countjr, Massachu- 
setts. It first runs northwesterly, passing from Massachusetts into 
the extreme southwestern corner of Vermont and thence into Rensse- 
laer County, in New York. At the northern boundary of Rensselaer 
County it turns and pursues a westerly course to the Hudson opposite 
the village of Stillwater. Its drainage area at the mouth is taken at 
730 square miles. Its principal tributaries are Little Hoosic River, 
Walloomsac River, and Tomhannock Creek. The country drained is 
mainly mountainous, the summits attaining an elevation of from 
1,000 to 2,000 feet above tide. The principal water powers developed 
on Hoosic River, in New York, are at Schaghticoke and Hoosic Falls, 
with a few at intermediate points. At Schaghticoke there is from 97 
to 98 feet fall,. broken into falls of 8, 7.5, 24.5, 34.5, and 23 feet. The 
available statements as to the power at Hoosic Falls are so conflicting 
that it is thought best to omit them. 

Hoosic River is of considerable interest to persons concerned in water- 
power development on the Hudson below its mouth, because there 
are two reservoirs on its headwaters which have been constructed by 
manufacturers in Massachusetts in order to maintain a more equable 
summer flow. The first of these is the Clarksburg reservoir, on the 
North Branch of Hoosic River, and at a distance of about 2^ miles 
above North Adams. The second reservoir is (^u the South Branch, 
and is known as the Cheshire reservoir, being situated in the town of 
that name. The Clarksburg reservoir is stated to flow 156 acres and to 
have a depth of 22 feet. The Cheshire reservoir flows about 650 acres 
and can be drawn down about 8 feet. Both these reservoirs are con- 
trolled by an association of mill owners on the Hoosic and its branches 
in the State of Massachusetts. 

BATTENKILL RIVER. 

Battenkill River, another important tributary of the Hudson, rises 
in the southwestern part of Vermont, in Bennington County. It first 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. VII 




BIG FALLS OF BATTENKILL RIVER. 



RAFTER.] FISH CREEK. 41 

flows southwesterly and then westerly irregularly across Washington 
County, New York, to the Hudson at a point about a mile above 
Sehuylerville. The drainage area is taken at 460 square miles. The 
elevation above tide at the mouth of the river is 82 feet, and at the 
Delaware and Hudson Railway crossing, a little south of Shushan, 
the elevation is 437 feet. This gives a descent of 355 feet in 22 miles, 
about one-half of which is concentrated within the last 4 or 5 miles of 
the river's course. 

The following is a brief statement of the water powers on the lower 
section of the Battenkill, in ascending order from the mouth : 

V/ater powers on the loiver section of the Battenkill. 

x\t Clark Mills, the American Woodboard Company, 24 feet head. 

At Big Falls (shown on PI. VII), the dam at the head of the falls gives 106 feet 
head, divided into Bennington Falls Pulp Company, 32 feet; Ondawa Pulp and 
Paper Company, 30 feet; not utilized, 44 feet. 

At Middle Falls, the dam at the head of the falls gives 55 feet head. Here there 
are a leather-board mill, shank mill, sawmill, plaster mill, gristmill, and electric- 
light station. 

At Greenwich, Dunbar, McMaster & Co., 8 feet head; Palmer's lower dam, 9 
feet head, furnishes power for gristmill, paint works, shirt manufacturing, scale 
manufacturing, and plow works; Palmer's upper dam, 6 feet head, furnishes 
power for a cotton mill and a pa^oer mill. 

At Center Falls, Angel & Langdon Paper Mill, 25 feet head. 

At Battenville, Phoenix Paper Company, 10 feet head. 

At Rexleigh there is a cotton mill with 6 feet head; at Shushan a gTistmill, shirt 
factory, electric-light station, and foundry, all receiving power from about 14 
feet head. 

In addition to the foregoing there are stated to be undeveloped 
water powers on the Battenkill as follows: Between Clark Mills and 
Big Falls, 27 feet; between Greeiiwich and Center Falls, 8 feet; be- 
tween Center Falls and Battenkill, 10 feet. 

It is stated that the utilized powers on the Battenkill are developed 
up to about 30 horsepower per foot fall. They are, however, sometimes 
short of Avater in dry weather. With a drainage area of 4G0 square 
miles, a minimum flow of 0. 3 of a cubic foot per square mile per sec- 
ond would give only about 15.3 gross horsepower X3er foot of fall. It 
is inferred, therefore, that the Battenkill is an exceedingly good water 
yielder, although definite data derived from stream measurements are 
entirely lacking. 

FISH CREEK. 

Fish Creek, a stream tributary to the Hudson at Sehuylerville, is 
the outlet of Saratoga Lake. Its chief tributarj^ is the Kayaderosseras 
Creek, which drains the central part of Saratoga County. The drain- 
age area of Fish Creek at its junction with the Hudson is estimated at 
253 square miles. Both Fish Creek and Kayaderosseras Creek are 
extensively utilized for water power. 



42 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

SACUNDAGA RIVER. 

Sacundaga River, a view of which is given on PL VIII, is the next 
important tributary of the Hudson in the ascending order. It has 
three principal branches, whicli unite to form the main river in the 
southeastern part of Hamilton County. The West Branch is the out- 
let of Piseco Lake ; the Middle Branch is the outlet of Sacundaga and 
Pleasant lakes, while the East Branch issues from a series of small 
ponds and lakes in the southwestern part of Warren County, not far 
from Bakers Mills. The East and Middle branches unite a few miles 
to the north of Wellstown, and West Branch joins a few miles south 
of Wellstown. The river then flows southeasterly to about 5 miles 
below North ville, where it turns rather more than a right angle and 
flows irregularl}^ northeast to the main Hudson at Hadley. The prin- 
cipal tributary of the Sacundaga, aside from its several branches, is 
East Stony Creek. 

The following are the several subdivisions of the drainage area of 
Sacundaga River: 

SuhdiviHions of the drainage area of Sacundaga River. 

Sq. miles. 

Total drainage area at mouth 1,040 

South Branch . 240 

Middle Branch . 115 

East Branch 124 

Stony Creek 212 

Main river below Stony Creek 223 

The following are elevations above tide at a number of principal 
points: 

Elevations above tide of points along Sacundaga River. 

Feet. 

At mouth of river 556 

Above dam at Conklinville '. . 697 

Northville 732 

Hope Center . _ 763 

Wellstov/n - 902 

East Branch at old tannery 958 

East Branch at foot of High Falls . 1,205 

East Branch at head of High Falls 1,337 

East Branch at Brighams Pond 1, 708 

Piseco Lake i 1,648 

Lake Pleasant 1, 706 

Sacundaga Lake 1, 706 

From Conklinville to the mouth of the river, a distance df a little 
over 5 miles, the river falls 141 feet. At present this section of the 
river is entirely unutilized except by two j^owers, one at Conklinville 
and the other about 2 miles from Hadley. 

Thus far there are no detailed measurements of the Sacundaga, but 
since the drainage area is still largely in primeval forest it is without 
doubt an excellent water yielder. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. 




A. HUDSON RIVER ABOVE LUZERNE 




B. SACUNDAGA RIVER NEAR LUZERNE. 



RAFTER.] HUDSON RIVER SYSTEM. 43 

SCHROON RIVER. 

Schroon River rises in Essex County, along the southern slopes of 
the highest mountains of the Adirondack group. As shown by the 
map (PI. IX), it flows in a general southerly direction for about 45 
miles, through Essex and Warren counties, and joins the Hudson 
just above Thurman. On the boundary between Essex and Warren 
counties the river flows through Schroon Lake, a body of water 
nearly 9 miles long and from a little less than 0.5 to 1.5 miles in 
width. 

The following are some of the imiDortant subdivisions of the drain- 
age area of Schroon River: 

Subdivisions of the drainage area of Schroon Rivei\ 

Square miles 

At mouth - 550 

Warrensburg 535 

Tumblehead Falls , 503 

Foot of Schroon Lake ._ . 479 

Some of the elevations on Schroon River are as follows: 

Elevations on Schroon River. 

Feet. 

At mouth ...:. 610 

Schroon Lake _ 807 

Paradox Lake 820 

Schroon Falls 840 

Elk Lake 1,986 

There is no developed water power on Schroon River except that at 
Warrensburg. 

TRIBUTARIES SOUTH OF MOHAWK RIVER. 

Kinderhook Creek and Croton River are the chief tributaries of 
the Hudson south of the Mohawk requiring special mention at this 
time. Brief consideration of the run-off of Croton River will be given 
further on. The Columbia Electric Light Power Company, of Valatie, 
was incorporated b}'' the laws of 1897 to construct reservoirs and 
create extensive power developments on Kinderhook Creek and its 
tributaries in Columbia and Rensselaer counties. The. surveys for 
this Avork are now in process under the direction of L. L. Tribus, 
chief engineer of the company. 

Wallkill River, a branch of Rondout Creek, may be mentioned. 
This stream rises in New Jersey and flows north, joining Rondout 
Creek near Rondout. It is proposed to take an additional water sup- 
ply for Brooklj^n Borough of Greater New York from the head Avaters 
of this stream in New Jerse3^ The drainage area south of the NeAV 
York State line is 210 square miles. 



44 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

ALLEGHENY RIVER SYSTEM. 

The Allegheny River enters the State of New York from Pennsyl- 
vania in the southeastern corner of Cattaraugus County and, flowing 
in nearly a semicircle with its outward curve to the north, passes out 
of the State in the southwestern part of Cattaraugus County, again 
entering Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is 
Conewango Creek, which receives the outlet of Chautauqua Lake 
and of Cassadaga Creek as tributaries. Little Valley, Great Val- 
ley, and Glean creeks are also tributaries in New York. None of 
these streams is of especial importance for water power. 

Chautauqua Lake, 20 miles in length and from 1 to nearly 2 miles 
in width, is distant from Lake Erie at its northern extremity only 
about 9.5 miles. Its elevation above tide water is 1,297 feet, while 
that of Lake Erie is 573 feet. Hence Chautauqua Lake is 724 feet 
above Lake Erie. The Conewango Creek, at the south line of the 
State, has an elevation of 1,243 feet. The fall from Chautauqua 
Lake to the southern boundary of the State along the drainage line is 
therefore only 54 feet. The drainage area of the Chautauqua outlet 
at the foot of Chautauqua Lake is 178 square miles, and of the Chau- 
tauqua outlet below Cassadaga Creek 343 square miles. 

SUSQUEHANNA RIVER SYSTEM. 

The head waters of the North Branch of Susquehanna River lie 
chiefly in the State of New York, the drainage area in this State being 
taken at 6,267 square miles. The main stream is considered as rising 
in Gtsego Lake, from which it flows flrst southwesterly, then westerly 
with a short portion of its course south of the Pennsylvania line. It 
finally leaves New York State in Tioga County. The Susquehanna, 
while one of the large rivers of New York, is nob at all important as 
regards water power. The main river and most of its tributaries 
in New York flow through a rolling country with fairly uniform 
declivity. While utilized for small powers in many places, thus far 
there are no extensive developments on either the main stream or its 
branches, except at Binghamton, where considerable water power is 
utilized. The slope of the stream in New York State is shown by 
following elevations, in feet, above tide water: 

Elevations along Susquehanna River in New York State. 

Feet. 

At Towanda, a few miles south of the State line 700 

At Athens, on Chemung River, near the State line 744 

At Otsego Lake 1,193 

So far as known, no discharge measurements of this stream have 
ever been made. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. IX 




Sc^/e of Mi/es 



DRAINAGE AREA OF SCHROON RIVER. 



RAFTER] SUSQUEHANNA RIVER SYSTEM. 45 

As one of the important tributaries of the North Branch of Susque- 
hanna River in New York may be mentioned Chenango River, which 
rises in Madison County, ^aiid flows south through Madison, Chenango, 
and Broome counties, emptying into the Susquehanna at Hinghamton. 
Chemung River, the cliief tributarj^ of the North Braneli, is formed 
in Steuben County, New Yorlv, near Painted Post, by the junction of 
the Tioga and Cohocton Rivers, whence it pursues a southeasterly 
course, joining the Susquehanna near Athens, in Bradford County, 
Pennsj^lvania, just south of the State line. Tioga River rises in Tioga 
County, Pennsylvania, and flows north to join the Cohocton at Painted 
Post. Canisteo, the principal New York State tributarj^ of the Tioga, 
joins the main stream 5 miles south of Painted Post. Cohocton River, 
which rises in Livingston County, and flows southeast to join the Tioga 
at Painted Post, is utilized for small powers at a number of places. 
The area drained by the Cohocton and Canisteo is almost entirely 
denuded of forest and the streams are in consequence much less valu- 
able for power than formerly. For a considerable length of time, in 
the fall of 1895, the natural yield of these streams was probably consid- 
erably less than one-tenth of a cubic foot per second i^er square mile. 

Other tributaries of the Susquehanna in New York State are Owego 
and Cuyuta creeks, neither of which, although formerly extensively 
utilized for small powers, is now of great value, largely because of the 
exceedingly slight summer flows. 

The following are the drainage areas of the Susquehanna and its 
tributaries in the State of New York : 

Drainage areas of Susquehanna River and its tributaries in Neiv York. 

Square miles. 
Main river below mouth of Chemung River (south of Pennsylvania line) . . 7, 463 

Total area north of Pennsylvania line , 6, 267 

Above mouth of Chemung River 4, 945 

At Binghamton 2, 279 

At Susquehanna . 2, 024 

At Nineveh 1 , 789 

Below mouth of Unadilla River 1, 638 

Below mouth of Oak Creek 212 

Above mouth of Oak Creek 97 

Oak Creek 115 

Cherry Valley Creek 121 

Chenevas Creek 127 

Charlotte River 178 

Otego Creek 106 

Oaliout Creek 115 

Unadilla River 561 

Butternut Creek 123 

Chenango River at mouth 1, 540 

Chenango River above Tioughnioga _ 685 

Chenango River above Canasawacta Creek 297 

Tioughnioga River at mouth 735 



46 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, FART I, [m.2i. 

Drainage areas of Susquehanna River and its tributaries in New York— Cont'd. 

Square miles. 

Tioughnioga River above month of Otselic River 428 

Otselic River ^ 259 

West Branch of Tionghnioga River 103 

East Branch of Tioughnioga River 164 

Owego Creek 391 

Cayuta Creek 148 

Chemung River at junction of Canisteo and Cohocton rivers 1, 941 

Chemung River at Elmira 2, 055 

Chemung River at mouth 2,518 

Cohocton River at mouth 425' 

Tioga River at mouth 1, 530 

Tioga above mouth of Canisteo : 750 

Canisteo at mouth ^ 780 

Tuscarora Creek at mouth 120 

DELAWARE RIVER SYSTEM. 

The extreme head waters of Delaware River, in New York, are a 
series of small ponds in Schoharie County, a little north of the village 
of Stamford. From this point the stream flows southwesterly to 
Deposit, on the line between Broome and Delaware counties, where 
it turns south, on which general course it continues until near the 
Pennsylvania line, whence its course is southwesterly to Port Jervis. 
This portion of the river is the boundary line between New York and 
Pennsylvania. At Port Jervis the river passes from New York State, 
making a sharp turn to the southwest. The declivity of Delaware 
River is shown by the following elevations above tide water : 

Elevations along Delaware River in New York State, showing declivity of the stream. 

Feet. 

At Lackawaxen 600 

At Deposit ..... 984 

At head waters. - 1,886 

The principal tributary in New York State is Pepacton River, which 
rises in the eastern part of Delaware and Greene counties and flows 
southwest in a course generally parallel to the main stream. Never- 
sink Creek, the next important tributary in the State, joins the main 
stream at the State line a mile south of Port Jervis. Neither of these 
streams has thus far developed any large amount of water power, 
although there are a number of places where good powers could be 
developed. The cutting off of the forests of the Delaware drainage 
area has undoubtedly greatly injured the tributary streams for mill 
purposes. 



RAFTER] STREAMS OF LONG ISLAND. 47 

The following are the more important drainage areas on the Dela- 
ware and its tributaries in New York State : 

Drainage areas on Delaware River and tributaries in New York State. 

Square miles. 

Total area in New York State 2, 580 

Main stream below month of Neversink River 3, 600 

Main stream below Port Jervis 3, 252 

Main stream below junction of East and West branches 1, 604 

West Branch at mouth 685 

West Branch at Deposit, below Oquaga Creek 519 

Pepacton River at mouth. 919 

Above mouth of Beaverkill 520 

Beaverkill Creek-... 322 

Oquaga Creek,. 82 

Little Delaware Creek 53 

Neversink River at mouth 346 

By way of concluding the general discussion of the Allegheny, Sus- 
' quehanna, and Delaware river systems in the State of New York, it 
may be remarked that these have all been extensively used, either 
for floating logs or for propelling sawmills, or for both. The clearing 
up of the drainage areas has, however, long since reduced the lum- 
bering business to nothing. These streams are, therefore, much less 
extensively utilized than formerly. At present, aside from one or 
two points, their use is chiefl}^ for propelling small sawmills and grist- 
mills and for other moderate-sized industries. With one or two 
exceptions, there are no large power developments throughout the 
whole region. 

STREAMS OF LONG ISLAND. 

Long Island is chiefly a sandy plain, about 120 miles in length, with 
a total area of 1,682 square miles. A considerable portion is below 
an elevation of 100 feet above tide water, although in places it rises 
to elevations of 300 feet and more. The streams are all small and 
only a few miles in length, running down from the high land of the 
middle section to the Atlantic Ocean on the south and to Long Island 
Sound on the north. As regards water power, the water resources of 
Long Island have little significance, although there are many places 
where small powers are utilized for gristmills and other similar uses. 
The chief value of the inland water of Long Island is for the water 
supply of the city of Brooklyn. 

East River, which connects Long Island Sound with New York Bay, 
may also be referred to for convenience as a Long Island water 
resource. The great value of the stream to the commerce of New 
York is so obvious as to hardly require mention. 

The foregoing description of the river systems of New York has 



48 



[NO. 24. 



been made as brief as possible, because very complete descriptions 
have been given in the several monographs relating to New York 
State which appear in the report on the Water Power of the United 
States, Tenth Census, 1880. In these reports may be found full 
details of the several river valleys, with statements as to agricultural 
production, population, geology, climatology, and many other subjects 
not touched on here. 

AVAII.ABJ.E WATER SUPPI.Y. 

RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 

The great developments of the Niagara Falls Power Company, 
authorized by the laws of 1886, have been in part completed, while at 
the same time the original Niagara Falls power development, now 
owned by the Niagara Falls Power and Manufacturing Company, has 
increased greatly in capacity. The laws of 1886, and amendments 
thereto, have also authorized the taking from Niagara River of large 
quantities of water for the purpose of creating a water power near 
the city of Lockport. A ship canal is projected connecting Lakes 
Erie and Ontario, and the Canadian Government has made a conces- 
sion for extensive power developments on the Canadian side of the 
river. Hence it is evident that the future demands for water to be 
taken from Niagara River and delivered either into the lower river 
below the Falls or into Lake Ontario independent of the river are 
very large, and the interest which the people of the State of New 
York have in the run-oif of Niagara River becomes exceedingly 
important. 

The most recent determination of the area of the basin drained by 
the Great Lakes and of the water surfaces of the lakes themselves is 
that given in the report of the United States Deep Waterways Com- 
mission, from which the following general summary is taken : 

Water surface and ivat^rslied areas of the basin drained by the Great Lakes. 



Lake. 


Area of water 
surface. 


Area of water- 
shed. 


Total area of 
basin. 


Superior 

Michigan . . . 


Square miles. 

31,800 
22, 400 
23, 200 
495 
10, 000 


Square miles. 

48, 600 

45, 700 

52, 100 

6,320 

24,480 


Square miles. 
80, 400 
68, 100 
75,300 
6,815 
34, 480 


Huron . . 


St. Clair 


Erie 

Total 


87, 895 


177, 200 


265, 095 



RAFTEH] RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 49 

That portion of the drainage area of Lake Erie lying within the 
State of New York is given as 2,210 square miles. The area of islands 
in Niagara River is given as 29 square miles. That portion of the 
watershed of Niagara River lying within the State of New York has 
an area of 789 square miles. The area of tlie river itself, from its 
head at Lake Erie to the Falls, is 21 square miles. ^ 

The accompanying table gives the precipitation within and in the 
vicinity of the drainage area of the Great Lakes for the years from 
1892 to 1895, inclusive. In this table a few only of the many i^recipita- 
tion records which are now available have been used. The records 
there appearing are, it is believed, sufficient to show the mean pre- 
cipitation of the basin of the Great Lakes for the years indicated. In 
this and subsequent tables the water year^ is considered as beginning 
with the month of December of the preceding year. Thus the water 
year of 1879 extends from December, 1878, to November, 1879, inclu- 
sive. The months from December to May constitute what may be 
termed the storage period. During this time vegetation is inert, the 
temperature low, with consequent light evaporation. Usually from 
70 to 80 per cent of the precipitation of this period runs off in the 
streams. 

June to August, inclusive, is the growing period. Then the tem- 
perature is at its highest for the year and vegetation is active. For 
this period only about 20 per cent of the rainfall appears in the 
streams, and some of that is usually the stored ground water of the 
preceding period. 

Sei)tember to November, inclusive, is the replenishing period. The 
temperature is again relatively low, vegetation inert, and the rainfall 
goes to replenish the stock of ground water, depleted during the grow- 
ing i3eriod, or, after the ground again becomes full, appears as direct 
run-off in the streams. In the table the monthly precipitation has 
been omitted, as it can readily be found in the annual reports of the 
United States Weather Bureau, and the data have been condensed 
to show the total quantities for the storage, growing, and replenish- 
ing periods, together Avith the total annual amounts. 

1 Report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, by the commissioners, James B. 
Angell, John E. Russell, Lyman E. Cooley. Accompanied by the report on technical work and 
the several topical reports and drawings pertaining thereto. Printed as House Document No. 
192, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session, Washington, 189T, pp. 146, 147. 

For the drainage area of the Great Lakes in detail reference may be made to an excellent map 
of the basin of the Great Lakes and of St. Lawrence and Hudson rivers in relation to the sur- 
rounding drainage systems accompanying the report of the Deep Waterways Commission. 

" Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 189-5, p. 99. 

IRR 24 4: 



50 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Precipitation, in inches, ivithin and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 
Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, inclusive. 



Locality and year. 


December 
to May. 


June to 
August. 


September 
to No- 
vember. 


Annual. 


Pokegama Falls, Minn.: 

1892 . . . / 


11.76 
9.64 

14.72 
9.14 


6.99 
13. 06 

8.04 
12.49 


2.86 
2.84 
9.01 
5.70 


21.61 


1893 - 


25.54 


1894 - 

1895 


31.77 
27.33 






Mean .-. 


26.56 




17.96 

11.08 

19.44 

6.44 


11.78 
6.86 
3.80 
9.32 


2.3^ 
3.64 

8.51 

7.70 




Dulnth, Minn.: 

1892 . 

1893 

1894. 

1895 : . 


32.13 
21.58 
31.75 
23.46 


Mean 


27. 23 




13.78 
12.80 
15.66 

7.72 


23.32 

9.79 
1.73 
9.96 


2.33 
5.68 
6.46 
5.01 




Minneapolis, Minn.: 

1892 ..._ 

1893 

1894. 


39.43 

28.27 
23.85 


1895_.:.... 


22.69 


Mean . .... - 


28.56 




14.95 

14.85 
19.65 
10.06 


12.47 
8.12 

8.52 
7.52- 


7.95 

7.15 

10.46 

3.14 




Green Bay, Wis.: 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 


35.37 
30.12 
38.63 

20.72 






Mean . . . ... 


31.21 




18.89 

13.37 

10.96 

5.54 


13.34 

12.75 

6.23 

3.88 


4.89 

5.82 
7.61 

2.57 




Madison, Wis.: 

1892 


37.12 


1893 

1894 . 


31.94 
24.80 


1895 . 


11.99 






Mean 


26.1^6 




18.17 
15.69 
15.94 
10.34 


11.00 

10.14 

4.81 

7.45 


5.71 
6.06 
8.79 
5.33 




Milwaukee, Wis. : 
1892 . 


34.88 


1893 .. 


31.89 


1894 . 

1895.... 


29.54 
23.12 


Mean 


29.86 













RAFTER.] 



PRECIPITATION NEAR THE GREAT LAKES. 



51 



Precipitation, in inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 
Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, mcZitsive— Continued. 



Locality and year. 


December 
to May. 


June to 
August. 


September 
to No- 
vember. 


Annual. 


Chicago, 111.: 

1892 - . 


16.03 
13.93 

, 14.48 
9.58 


14.66 

6.85 

3.16 

10.70 


5.56 

6.18 

10.30 

7.00 


36.25 


1893 


26.96 


1894 


27.94 


1895 . 


27.28 






Mean . . 


26.61 




27.26 

24.45 

21.11 

9.08 


10.91 
4.52 

4.58 
6.40 


6.97 

8.92 

7.82 
8.56 




Logansport, Ind. : 
1892 


45 14 


1893... 


37.89 


1894 


33.51 


1895 


24.04 






Mean 


35.15 




14.52 

20.54 

16.63 

8.92 


8.18 
7.18 
2.76 
5.40 


7.70 

10.33 

7.21 

4.70 




Ann Arbor, Mich. : 

1892.. 


30 38 


1893 


38. 05 


1894... 


26.60 


1895 


19.02 






Mean , 


28.51 




16.57 
19.02 
19.84 
10. 89 


8.93 
6.79 

4.07 
4.88 


4.97 

8.68 

11.08 

6.17 




Grand Haven, Mich.: 
1892 .. 


30 47 


1893... 

1894.... . . . 


34.49 
34 99 


1895 


21.94 


Mean . . 


30.47 




16.03 
14.81 
24.65 
16.35 


3.53 
9.16 
5.25 

7.04 


8.89 
7.41 
9.31 
8.89 


Marquette, Mich. : 

1892 

1893 

1894... 

1895 


28.45 
31.38 
39.21 
33.28 


Mean 


32.83 




12.39 
15.61 
17.80 
11.66 


10.30 
7.94 
6.83 
4.59 


6.43 
8.31 
9.80 
8.98 




St. Ignace, Mich.: 

1892.. 

1893 


29.12 
31.86 


1894. 


34.43 


1895 


25 23 






Mean 


30. 16 













52 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Precipitation, in inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 
Great Lakes. 1892 to 1895, inclusive — Continued. 



Locality and year. 


December 
to May. 


June to 
August. 


September 
to No- 
vember. 


Annual. 


Traverse City, Mich.: 

1892 - 


17.65 
17.88 
20.62 
16.69 


10.87 
7.07 
5.61 
4.53 


8.61 

11.41 

9.72 

7.85 


37.13 


1893 

1894 


36.36 
35.95 


1895 - . - 


29.07 






Mean - - - 


S4.6S 




19.84 

19.09 

15.28 

9.29 


11.91 
5.46 
5.55 

7.59 


5.9a 

7.45 
7.77 
7.91 


Cleveland, Ohio: 

1892 


37.65 


1893 


32.00 


1894 


28.60 


1895 -- ,-- 


24.79 






Mean . -... - 


SO. 76 




17.77 

10.17 

14.93 

9.23 


12.76 

4.81 
2.78 
6.24 


6.47 
6.92 
5.23 

7.11 




Toledo, Ohio: 

1892 


37.00 


1893 


21.90 


1894 ..- 

1895 


22.94 

22.58 






Mean . .- 


26.10 




22.62 
20.65 

22.47 
14.17 


16.93 

8.00 
5.82 
6.23 


8.32 

7.87 

12.50 

8.85 




Buffalo, N.Y.: 

1892 


47. 87 


1893 


36.52 


1894 


40.79 


1895- 


29.25 






Mean 


38.61 




' 17.75 
18.05 
21.26 
16.16 


13.41 
9.36 

7.05 
6.84 


5.94 
6.02 
7.14 
7.15 




Rochester, N. Y.: 

1892 

1893 


37.10 
33.43 


1894 _. 

1895 ..- 


35.45 
30.15 






Mean .- 


34.03 




15.22 
14.63 
19.55 
15.06 


15.33 
9.83 
6.46 
6.25 


6.82 

8.01 

11.13 

9.08 




Oswego, N. Y.: 

1892 


37. 37 


1893 . 

1894. -. 

1895 


32.47 
37.14 
30.39 






Mean . . _ . 


34.34. 











PRECIPITATION NEAR THE GREAT LAKES. 



53 



Precipitation, in inches, loithin and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 
Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, inclusive— GouimviQ^. 



Locality and year. 


Decern bei- 
to May. 


June to 
August. 


September 
to No- 
vember. 


Annual. 


Winnipeg, Manitoba: 

1892 ---- 

1893. 

1894 


6.65 

8.25 
8.55 
8.18 


8.70 

10.81 

3.80 

6.62 


3.96 
4.35 
5.84 
2.42 


19.31 
23. 41 
18.19 


1895 


17. 22 






Mean 


19. 53 




8.84 
8.48 
8.20 
8.76 


7.35 
7.39 
5.57 

7.86 


5.31 
6.50 
8.30 
6.05 




Port Arthur, Ontario: 
1892 


21.50 


1893 

1894 


22.37 

22.07 


1895 


22.67 






Mean 


22. 15 




12.21 
18.64 
19.90 
11.93 


12.29 
9.85 
3.07 
6.24 


6.65 

7.86 
8.44 
7.76 




Toronto, Ontario: 

1892. .. 


31.15 


1893 


36. 35 


1894. ..:_. 

1895. .. 


31.41 
25.93 


Mean 


31.21 













These precipitation data are of special interest becanse the year 
1895 was the culmination of a period of exceedingly low water. They 
show that for a period of four years the precijiitation of this basin 
was low, and in consequence the run-off of the tributary streams 
must have been exceedingly small. As illustrating this proposition, 
we maj'' first refer to the run-off of the Upper Mississippi,^ where there 
is a reservoir sj^stem controlling a drainage area of 3,265 square miles, 
first operated about 1885. The rainfall of the area tributarj^ to these 
reservoirs, as indicated b}^ records kept at Leech Lake, Lake Wini- 
bigoshish, and Pokegama Falls from 1885 until the present time is, 
as an average, from 24 to 26 inches per year. The highest recorded 
yearly precipitation is 31.87 inches, at Pokegama Falls in 1894. The 
rainfall of the area tributary to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs is 
found to be quite similar to that of tlie region tributary to Lake 
Superior. Hence the run-off of this reservoir sj^stem may be con- 
sidered as representing the run-off of the drainage area of Lake 
Superior and the northern portion of Lakes Michigan and Huron. 

1 Annual Report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army for 189G, Part III, p. 18^3; also for 1897, Part 
III, p. 2169. 



54 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART 1. [no. 24. 

The following gives the discharge from these reservoirs for the years 
1892 to 1895, inclusive, corresponding with the years of precipitation 
shown in the table on pages 50 to 53 : 

Mean rainfall, run-off, and proportion of run-off to rainfall of the area tributary 
to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs. 



Water year. 


Mean rainfall 

on water 

shed. 


Run-off of 
watershed. 


Proportion 

of run-oflf to 

rainfall. 


1892 


Inches. 
21.33 
25.42 
26.63 
25.11 


Inches. 

4.43 
3.61 
3.62 

2.79 


Per cent. 
20.8 
14.2 
13.6 
11.1 


1893 . . 


1894.... 


1895 


Total 


98.49 


14.45 




Mean 




24.62 


3.61 


14.7 



The table shows that during the years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, the 
mean run-off of the Upper Mississippi watershed was only 3.61 inches 
on the total watershed. These figures, however, are subject to cor- 
rection because the state of the reservoirs at the beginning and end- 
ing of the four-year period is not given in the report of the United 
States engineers, from which these data are taken. This correction, 
however, can not be very large, because the reservoirs are so operated 
as to be emptied, generally speaking, each year. In considering the 
run-off of these Upper Mississippi reservoirs, due consideration should 
be given to the fact that the water area of the reservoirs is 585 square 
miles, or nearly 18 per cent of the w^hole. For Lakes Superior, Michi- 
gan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie we have a total water surface of 87,895 
square miles, with a total drainage area, including the surface of the 
lakes, of 265,095 square miles. The water surface of these several 
lakes is, therefore, about 33 per cent of the entire area of the basin, 
or nearly double the relative area of water surface and drainage area 
for the Upper Mississippi reservoirs. With other conditions the same, 
this fact would probably lead to a somewhat greater proportion of 
run-off from the Great Lakes. 

By way of further illustrating the yield of streams in the vicinity 
of the Great Lakes drainage area, we may refer to the run-off' of the 
Des Plaines River as given in the table on page 64. This stream 
has been measured by the Chicago drainage commission, with certain 
intermissions, as shown by the table, since January, 1886, the drain- 
age area above the point of measurement being 633 square miles. 
The drainage area comprises a long and narrow, flat region extending 
from near Chicago to a few miles north of Milwaukee, the eastern line 
being for the entire distance nearly parallel to Lake Michigan and in 



RUN-OFF OF MUSKINGUM RIVER. 



bb 



places only 2 or 3 miles distant therefrom. The area drained by the 
Des Plaines River is large enough to give a fair idea of the average 
yield of streams tributary to Lake Michigan in northern Illinois and 
Indiana, western Michigan, and southern and central Wisconsin. In 
1893, with a mean rainfall on the drainage area of 39. 9G inches, the 
total run-off was 10.14 inches, of which 8.61 inches occurred during 
the storage period from December to May, inclusive. In 1894, with 
a total rainfall of 27.94 inches, the total run-off was 7.70 inches, of 
which 7.54 inches occurred in the storage period. For the year 1895 
the total rainfall was 27.28 inches. The run-off data of this year are 
unfortunately incomplete, but taking into account the sequence of 
the rainfall it is clear that the total run-off for that year did not exceed 
about 2.0 to 2.5 inches. The effect of the three dry years 1893, 1894, 
and 1895 in the Des Plaines drainage area is shown by the record of 
1896, where, with a total rainfall of 39.58 inches, the total run-off was 
only 6.69 inches, of which 5.39 inches occurred in the storage period. 
These figures indicate that the ground water of the Des Plaines area 
must have been so low at the end of 1895 as to absorb a large portion 
of the heavier rainfall of 1896 before any great amount could appear 
as run-off.^- 



Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Muskingum River, as 
measured by the United States engineers, from 1888 to 1895, inclusive. 

[In inches on the watershed.] 





1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


Month. 


1 


o 


d 
o 

Pi 

> 


t 


1 
1 


? 


§ 

1 
P. 

> 


a 


3 

a 
'S 


9 


d 

o 

i 

a 
>. 


pi 

1 


December 

January 

February .... 

March 

April 


1.94 
3.96 
1.91 
4.05 
1.75 
3.55 

17. 16 
2. GO 
5.81 
5.84 

lit. ;n 
3.28 
3.25 
4.61 

11. lU 


0.18 
1.24 
1.12 
1.38 
0.80 
0.45 
5.17 
0.29 
0.81 
0.67 

0.61 
0.77 
2.01 
3.39 




11.99 

I2.r,u 




30.8 
23.5 
29.4 
32.5 
46.9 
58.4 
36.9 
68.4 
70.4 
68.8 
69.2 
58.0 
45.6 
41.1 
h8.2 


1.50 
3.63 
1.55 
1.71 
2.23 
2.90 

13.52 
4.79 
5.35 
1.98 

12.12 
4.17 
2.35 
3.72 

10. 2h 


0.84 
1.89 
1.42 
0.71 
0.88 
0.28 
6.02 
0.47 
0.55 
0.22 
1.2U 
0.14 
0.14 
0.68 
0.96 


7.50 
10.38 
9.28 


o 
31.5 
31.7 
24.0 
39.0 
47.9 
59.1 
38.9 
65.7 
71.7 
67.0 
68. 1 
, 61.3 
46.5 
40.2 
h9.3 


3. 01 
4.52 
5.84 
4.38 
3.41 
6.61 

27.77 
5.27 
3.06 
5.a5 

13.68 
6.86 
6.20 
2.46 

15.52 


1.48 
3.53 
3.73 
4.23 
2.00 
3.10 
18.07 
1.64 
0.51 
0.49 
2.6U 
2.28 
2.01 
1.84 
6.13 


9. 70 
11.0/, 
9. 39 


o 

41.1 

37.0 

37.5 

33.0 

48.8 


May 


56.9 




h2.2 
70.7 


July 


70.9 


August 

September . . _ 

October 

November ... 


66.6 
60. U 
60.6 
51.1 
42.0 
51.2 


Year..-. 


42.61 


10.33 


32.28 


47.8 


35.88 


8.22 


27.66 


48.8 


56.97 


26.84 


30. 13 


51.3 



1 For details of the measurements of the Des Plaines River see data pertaining to rainfall and 
stream flow, by Thomas T. Johnston, Journal Western Soc. C. E., Vol. I (June, 1896). 



56 



.WATER EES0URCP:S of state of new YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Muskingum River, as 
measured by the United States engineers, from 1888 to 1895, inclusive — Cont'd. 





1891. 


1893. 


1893. 


Month. 




1 


1 

1 
o 

eg 
> 


1 


1 


i 


1' 

1 


t 

pi 

I 
a 


i 


i 

§ 
« 


1 


t 

1 


December 

January 

February 

March 

April - . 


3.45 
3.53 
4.43 
3.19 
1.74 
3.39 

16. 72 
7.56 
3.93 
3.08 

13. 56 
1.08 
1.35 
4.75 
7.08 


0.91 
3.40 
4.56 
3.53 
1.58 
0.45 
12. U2 
0.91 
0.51 
0.35 
1.77 
0.17 
0.36 
0.94 
1.37 


U.30 
11.79 
5.71. 


39.3 
31.3 
34.8 
33.5 

49.8 
55.8 
39.1 
69.0 
67.6 
68.7 
68. U 
66.5 
49.7 
38.6 
51.6 


3.63 
3.40 
3.76 
3.10 
3.34 
7.37 

20.39 
7.05 
5.44 
4.05 

16. 5U 
3.33 
0.80 
1.68 


1.03 
0.74 
3.40 
1.36 
1.38 
3.35 
.9.06 
3.30 
0.75 
0.60 
3.65 
0.38 
0.30 
0.19 
0.67 


11.33 
12.89 

u.iu 


37.8 
33.8 
33.0 
33.7 
46.0 
57.9 
38. k 
71.6 
70.9 
70.0 
70.8 
63.3 
50.1 
37.8 
50.0 


1.63 
3.01 
6.38 
3.31 
5.94 
5.78 
25.01, 
3.08 
3.93 
3.31 
8.31 
1.56 
5.51 
1.94 
9.01 


0.34 
0.37 
4.70 
3.55 
2.23 
4.05 
Ik. 13 
0.78 
0.38 
0.16 

0.14 
0.46 
0.35 

0.85 


10.91 
7.09 
8.16 


28.1 
18.0 
38.3 
36.9 
49.6 


May '. . 


57.0 


June 

July 


36.3 
70.3 
73.6 


August- 

September . . . 

October 

November ... 


09.5 
71.1 
63.4 
53.4 
38.4 
51. U 


Year 


37.36 


15.56 


31.80 


49.5 


41.74 


13.38 


38.36 


~ 49.4 


43.36 


16.20 


36.16 


48.8 





1894. 


1895. 


Mean. 


Month. 


a 
■S3 


*9 


1 

o 

> 


1 


3 
p^ 


? 


1 

a 

03 

!> 


1 




9 


§ 

1 

& 

> 


pi 




2.59 
3.11 
2.95 
2.20 
3.45 
4.63 
16.93 
2.12 
1.77 
0.67 
U.56 
4.12 
2.19 
2.71 
9.02 


1.54 
1.00 
2.19 
1.41 
0.75 
0.74 
7.63 
0.42 
0.13 
0.11 
0.66 
0.15 
0.10 
0.16 
O.Ul 


9.30 
3.90 
8.61 




31.7 
33.2 
37.6 
43.9 
49.8 
58.3 
U0.7 
70.6 
73.1 
70.1 
71.3 
67.3 
53.3 
36.8 
52. U 


3.01 
3.99 
0.89 
1.87 
1.76 
1.53 
13. OU 
3.87 
2.53 
3.75 
9.1U 
3.39 
1.38 
3.89 
7.66 


0.36 
1.67 
0.13 
1.30 
0.59 
0.10 
A. 04 
0.17 
0.21 
0.11 
0.k9 
0.13 
0.08 
0.16 
0.37 


P. 00 

S.65 


7.^5 


o 
33.2 
22.4 
19.1 
33.2 
50.6 
60.5 
36.5 
71.6 
69.6 
71.7 
71.0 
67.2 
45.3 
40.8 
51.1 








o 


January 

February 

March 


























April 










May 










June 


18.82 


.9.57 


9.^5 


38.6 


July 


. 








August 

September . . . 
October 










11.53 


I.6S 


S.S5 


69.9 










November 












9.31 


1.77 


7.5U 


50.7 


Year..-. 


30.51 


8.70 


21.81 


51.3 


39.84 


4.90 


34.94 


48.8 


39.66 


13.03 


36.64 


49.5 



RAFTKR.] RUN-OFF OF GENESEE RIVER. 57 

In the table is given the rainfall and run-off record for Muskingum 
River, in Ohio, as measured at Zanesville ^ for the years 1888 to 1895, 
inclusive, the area of the watershed above the point of measurement 
being 5,828 square miles. Tlie liead waters of the stream are not far 
from Lake Erie and on the dividing line between the hill country of 
the east and the prairie country of the Mississippi Valley. Hence 
this stream represents conditions applicable to the run-off of the Oliio 
streams tributary to Lake Erie. The rainfall record as used in this 
table is the mean of the records kept at Akron, Canton, Newcomers- 
town, and Wooster, and may be considered to represent fairly well 
the mean precipitation of the Muskingum drainage area. For the 
year 1892 the total rainfall was 41.74 inches and the total run-off 13.38 
inches, of Avhicli 9.06 occurred in the storage period. In 1893 the total 
rainfall was 42.30 inches, with a total run-off of 16.20 inches, the run- 
off of the storage period being 14.13 inches. In 1894 the rainfall 
dropped to a total of 30.51 inches and the run-off to a total of 8.70 
inches, of which 7.63 inches occurred in the storage period. In 1895. 
the total rainfall was 29.84 inches and the total run-off 4.90 inches, of 
which 4.04 inches occurred during the storage period. 

Genesee River, while not tributary to the Great Lakes above Niagara 
River, may still be cited as showing that at times the run-off of 
streams tributary to the Great Lakes is quite low. Referring to the 
table on page 70, giving the rainfall and run-off of Oatka Creek, a 
tributary of the Genesee, we learn that in the water j^ear 1891, with 
a rainfall of 38.12 inches, the run-off was 14.05 inches. In 1892, with 
a rainfall of 41.69 inches, the run-off was 15.42 inches. 

Taking the record of Genesee River proper, as given in the table 
on page 58, we learn that for the water year 1894, with a mean pre- 
cipitation above the point of measurement of 47.79 inches, the run-off 
was 19.38 inches, of which 15.73 inches occurred in the storage period. 
In 1895 the rainfall dropped to 31 inches and the total run-off to 6.67 
inches. In 1880 Hemlock Lake, a tributary of Genesee River, with a 
drainage area of 43 square miles and a total rainfall of 21.99 inches, 
gave a run-off of only about 3.4 inches. 

1 Survey of the Miami and Erie Canal, the Ohio Canal, etc. Report of Capt. Hiram M. Chitten- 
den, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, January 20, 1896, printed as House Document No. 278, 
Fifty-fourth Congress, first session, p. 42. 



58 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. 



[NO. 24. 



Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Genesee River from 
December, 1893, to November, 1896, inclusive, 

[In inches on the watershed.] 





1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


Month. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
ofe. 


Evap- 
ora- 
tion. 


Mean 
tern 
pera 
ture 


Rain 

fall. 


Run- 
ofie. 


Evap 
ora 

tion. 


Mean 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evap- 
ora- 
tion. 


Mean 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


December 

January... .-. 

February 

March 

April 


3.39 
3.91 
3.93 
1.63 
7.33 
8.64 

27.71 
3.51 
3.70 
1.74 
7.95 
6.97 
3.50 
1.66 

12.13 


3.34 
1.40 
0.86 
3.31 
3.39 
4.43 
15.73 
1.10 
0.14 
0.33 
1.U6 
0.93 
0.44 
0.83 
2.19 


11.98 
G.U9 
9.9k 


36.8 
38.4 
30.1 
37.9 
43.1 
54.5 
35.0 
64.6 
67.9 
63.4 
65.3 
61.6 
49.5 
33.1 
h7.7 


3.47 
3.36 
1.33 
1.72 
3.10 
3.43 

13.20 
4.57 
3.57 
3.99 

11.13 
1.96 
1.30 
3.41 
6.67 


0.61 
0.66 
0.33 
1.94 
2.01 
0.19 
5.63 
0.13 
0.11 
0.13 
0.36 
0.10 
0.11 
0.47 
0.68 


7.57 


10. 77 
5.99 


o 

39.0 
1.91 
14.5 
38.0 
44 3 
57.8 
32.1 
67.5 
64.1 
66.5 
66.0 
61.7 
41.8 
38.0 
k7.2 


3.80 
2.39 
3.56 
4.00 
1.63 
3.57 

17.8k 
3.53 
4.90 
1.86 

10.28 
5.22 
4.08 
3.26 

12.56 


1.33 
0.47 
0.91 
3.00 
3.38 
0.17 
9.25 
0.39 
0.34 
0.20 
0.83 
0.16 
1.74 
0.82 
2.72 


8.59 
9.h5 
9.8k 


30.1 
22.4 
23.9 

23.7 

47.7 


May 


60 7 


June 


Sh.k 
62.1 


July 


67 3 


August 

September . . . 

October 

November . - . 


65.0 
6k. 8 
57.5 
43.6 
41.6 
U7.6 


Year--.- 


47.79 


19.38 


38.41 


45.7 


31.00 


6.67 


34.33 


44.3 


40.68 


13.80 


27.88 


45.3 



These figui^es are cited to show that in years of low rainfall the 
run-off of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is very low, and as a 
consequence the run-off of Niagara River will probably be affected 
thereby. At present the data are insufficient for showing Avhat the 
run- off of Magara River really is. 

The most elaborate measurements thus far made are those of the 
Lake Survey in 1867 and 1868, which are, however, extremely unsat- 
isfactory. According to these measurements the mean discharge, 
rainfall, and evaporation from the Great Lakes tor the year 1868, in 
cubic feet per second, were as follows : ^ 



Mean discharge, rainfall, and evaporation from the Great Lakes for the year 1868, 

in cubic feet per second. 



Lakes. 


Mean dis- 
charge. 


Total rainfall 
on basin. 


Evaporation 
from surface. 


Superior ... 

Huron and Michigan . 
Erie .,. 


86,000 
225, 000 
265, 000 


171,430 
251,450 
100, 540 


27, 690 
59,890 
14,310 


Total 




523,220 


101,890 







1 These figures are derived from Mr. Cooley's Lakes and Gulf Waterways, as corrected and 
given in the Journal of the Assoc, of Eng. Soc, Vol. VIII (March, 1889), p. 132. 



rafter] 



ELEVATION OF LAKE ERIE. 



59 



According to the Deep Waterways Commissiou's tabulations of 
available records of heights of the Great Lakes, it appears that the 
water levels fluctuate through a series of years to the extent of about 
4.5 feet. For the present discussion we are chiefly concerned with 
the fluctuations of Lake Erie, which control the discharge of Niagara 
River. By examination of the records of mean monthly elevation of 
Lake Erie at Buffalo from 1887 to 1897, as kept by the United States 
engineer's office at Buffalo, it appears that the highest mean monthly 
elevation during these years was for June, 1887, when the mean lake 
surface was +0.92. The lowest mean monthly elevation for the period 
was for March, 1896, when the mean for the month was —2.36. The 
range in the mean monthly elevations for this period was 3.28 feet. 

Mean monthly elevation of Lake Ei'ie at Buffalo. 
[In feet with reference to datum.] 



Month. 



December 
January . . 
February 
March — 

April 

May 



June 

July.... 
August 



September 
October ... 
November 

Year . 



+0.60 
+0.56 
+0.78 
+0.6U 
+0.92 
+0.76 
+0.36 
+0.68 
+0.05 
+0.11 
-0.44 
-0.09 



a+0.4] 



1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1893. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897 



-0.26 
—0.48 
-1.09 
-1.02 
-0.36 
-0.21 
—0.57 
-0.04 
+0.18 
+0.07 
+0.07 
—0.27 
-0.46 
-0.61 
-0.U5 



-0. 



-0.31 
-0.49 
-0.71 
-1.10 
-0.72 
-0.56 
—0.65 
-0.09 
-0.05 
-0.14 
—0.09 
-0.52 
-1.03 
-1.03 
—0.86 



-0.71 
-0.13 
-0.31 
-0.07 
+0.18 
+0.54 
—0.08 
+0.87 
+0.59 
+0.12 
+0.53 
-0.23 
-0.25 
-0.05 
—0.17 



0.56 +0.05 



-0.31 
-0.57 
-0.69 
-0.55 
-0.43 
-0.65 
—0.53 
-0.67 
—0.49 
-0.78 
—0.65 
-0.95 
-1.32 
-1.38 
—1.S2 



-0.73 



-1.35 
-1.44 
-2.13 
-1.93 
-1.09 
-0.65 
—1.1,3 
+0.16 
+0.37 
+0.00 
+0.1S 
-0.27 
-0.60 
-0.98 
—0.62 



-1.01 

-1.78 

-1.83 

-1.52 

-0.86 

-0.14 

-1.19 

+0.21 

+0.08 

0.51 

0.07 

-0.76 

-0.87 

0.88 

0.8k 



0.83 -0.82 



0.92 

0.92 

1.30 

1.19 

1.00 

0.50 

0.97 

0.11 

-0.24 

-0.71 

-0.36 

-0.08 

-0.88 

-1.06 

—0.67 



-0.74 



-1.23 
-1.36 
-2.05 
-2.13 
-1.92 
-1.57 
-1.71 
-1.47 
-1.49 
-1.63 
-1.53 
-1.61 
-1.85 
-2 34 
-1.93 



-2.08 
-1.93 
-2.00 
-2.36 
-1.83 
-1 38 
-1.93 
-1.37 
-1.19 
-0.96 
-1.18 
-1.38 
-1.64 
-1.61 
-1.5U 



-1,64 



a Mean of nine months. 

Tem^porarily much greater fluctuations have been experienced, due 
largely to wind action, to which Lake Erie, on account of its shallow- 
ness, and the fact that its general direction is favorable for the sweep 
of the prevailing winds, is peculiarly subject. In regard to the meas- 
urements of the Lake Survey, it may be remarked that they indicate 
large variations in discharge from all of the lakes, from the effects of 
winds and other disturbing causes, but give little clew to the quanti- 
ties at either of the extremes of high or low water. According to 
Ljanan E. Cooley the extreme low-water discharge is probably 20 to 
30 per cent less than the Lake Survey figures, and extreme high 
water 20 to 30 per cent more. 

Measurements of the amount of water flowing in Niagara River were 
begun in December, 1801, at a time when the water in Lake Erie was 
veiy low and the conditions were considered especiallj^ favorable for 



60 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK^ PART I. 



[no. 24. 



minimum discharge. Tlie results are given in the Annual Report of 
thje Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1893, Part VI, pp. 
4364-4371. The point selected was about 1,000 feet below the Inter- 
national Bridge at Black Rock, near the foot of Squaw Island, at 
which point the river is free from eddies. Niagara River, on leaving 
Lake Erie, has a nearly straight channel about 2,000 feet wide for 
the first 2 miles. The fall in this section is from 4 to 5 feet, and the 
velocity ranges from 7 miles per hour at the upper end to about 5 
miles at the lower end. The point was chosen, after careful considera- 
tion, as the point in that vicinity least subject to disturbance. In tak- 
ing the cross sections, the width, which, varies slightly with different 
stages of the river, was actually determined for gage readings 1 foot 
apart, and for extreme points the width was determined by interpo- 
lating values derived from the known slope of the river^banks. A 
local gage was established at the draw pier of the International Bridge 
by setting gage boards on each side of the pier, with the zeros of the 
gages on the same level. The local gage was read at the beginning 
and close of all velocity observations, and the gage at Buffalo was 
read at 7 a. m. and 1 and 7 p. m. The zero of this latter gage is at 
the mean level of Lake Erie, or 572.23 feet above mean tide at New 
York, in the Erie Canal levels, or as used bj^ the Grovernment engi- 
neers, 572. 96 feet. During the velocity observations in December, 1891, 
Lake Erie was about 1.5 feet below its mean level, and is stated not 
to have been seriously affected by strong winds. Still the daily record 
shows that there must have been some wind action. The current 
velocities were obtained after the methods used by the Mississippi 
River Commission and described in their reports, all relocity observa- 
tions being taken with a current meter, with electrical appliances for 
recording the number of revolutions. The following are some of the 
results obtained : ^ 



Mean heights and discharge of Niagara River. 



Date. 


Mean height 
on local gage. 


Mean height 

on Buffalo 

gage. 


Discharge per 
second. 


1891. 

December 24 . . 

December 14 ..... 


Feet. 
0.05 
0.65 
0. 735 
0.835 
1.125 
1.33 

1.562 
1.750 
2.292 


Feet. 

— 2.95 

— 1.85 

— 1.75 

— 1.75 

— 1.45 

— 0.50 

— 0.80 

— 0.85 
+0.15 


Cu.feet. 
164, 648 
191,822 
193, 522 
201,433 
208, 597 
218, 353 

213, 180 

218, 988 
^ 236, 762 


December 21 


December 20 

December 22 . . 


December 10 . . 


1892. 

May 19 

May 7 


May 24 





1 Annual Report of Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1893, Part VI, p. 4367. 



RAKTEK] RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 61 

The table shows (1) a variation in lake elevation, as indicated in 
the Buffalo gage, from —2.95 on December 24, 1891, to +0.15 on May 
24, 1892, a range of 3.10 feet; (2) a variation in discharge of 72,114 
cubic feet per second. There are some discrepancies in the results 
which it is not necessary to discuss at length ; but in the absence of 
more satisfactory data we may assume, in view of the foregoing 
evidence as to the small run-off of streams tributary to and in the 
vicinit}^ of the Great Lakes, that the figures obtained in the fall of 
1891 and spring of 1892 are probably more nearly correct than the 
larger figures of the Lake Survey. By plotting the observed dis- 
charges a mean discharge curve has been obtained, from which the 
discharge of the river at points within the range of the observation 
can be taken off, when one has the tabulated heights of the Buffalo 
gage before him. At present these measurements are, on the whole, 
not considered sufficiently exact to justify the labor of preparing 
a.tabulation of this character.^ 

Referring to the table on page 58, it is learned that the rainfall 
in that j)ortion of the basin of the Great Lakes tributary to Niagara 
River was, for 1868, 523,220 cubic feet per second, and the evapora- 
tion from the Avater surface of the lakes tributary to Niagara River 
was 101,890 cubic feet per second. Hence the evaporation from the 
lake surfaces Avas nearly 20 per cent of the rainfall on the whole basin. 
Assuming for the moment the truth of these figures, Ave have 80 per 
cent of the total rainfall from which the land evaporation must be 
deducted before anything can run off. Again assuming the land 
evaporation at 1.70 feet, there results a loss from this source alone of 
298,000 cubic feet per second; adding to this the evaporation loss from 
the Avater surfaces gi\^es a total eva]3oration loss of 399,890 cubic feet 
per second. The run-off is the difference betAA^een rainfall and total 
evaporation losses. If, therefore, the land CA^aporation Avas 1.7 feet 
for the year 1868, the run-off would haA^e been in reality only 123,330 
cubic feet per second instead of 265,000 cubic feet per second, as 

^ There have been a number of independent measurements of volume of the Niagara, and 
though the results differ widely, they probably do not differ more than the actual volume of the 
river at various stages of Lake Erie. 

Lyell (1841 ?) qixotes Ruggles as authority for a volume of 350,000 cubic feet per second. 

E. R. Blackwell, computed by Allen (Am. Jour Sci., 1841), obtains 374,000 cubic feet per second. 
His work was afterwards recomputed by D. F. Henry, who obtained 244,797 cubic feet per 
second. 

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1867-68, D. F. Henry 
gives as a result of observations in Avigust and September, 1867, 243,494 cubic feet per second. 
A year later he recomputed from the same data, and obtained 240,193 cubic feet per second. He 
also made a new measurement by a different method (see Report for 1868-69) from which he 
obtained two results, 304,307 and 258,586 cubic feet per second. 

AV. F. Reynolds (annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1870?), gives the 
result of observations from June to September, 1869, 212,860 cubic feet per second. 

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1871, there is mention 
of a result, without date of measurement, 245,296 cubic feet per second. 

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1891-92, Quintus, as a 
result of gaging, gives the volume, reduced to mean stage, as 233,800 cubic feet per second. 

Sir Casimir S. Gzowski, from continuous observations at the International Bi'idge, 1870-1873, 
gives an average discharge for that period of 246,000 cubic feet per second. 



62 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

determined by the Lake Survey. These figures, while not conclusive, 
are suggestive, so much so, indeed, that taking into account all the 
conditions it seems clear that in a series of years of minimum rainfall 
the run-off of the Great Lakes, tributary to Niagara River, may be as 
low as from 6 to 9 inches a year on the watershed. At the former 
figure the mean discharge would be about 177,700 cubic feet per 
second.^ 

As an additional source of loss from the Great Lakes the proposed 
ultimate diversion of 10,000 cubic feet per second through the Chicago 
drainage canal to the head waters of Illinois River may be referred 
to. Thus far the discussion of such loss has been mainly conducted 
on the supposition that the mean discharge of the Great Lakes at 
Niagara was about 265,000 cubic feet per second. If this were true 
the ultimate injurious effect of such diversion Could only appear 
during a series of extremely dry years. The author can not but think 
that this whole question of the run-off of Niagara River has becorne 
fogged by a discussion based thus far purely on averages. What we 
really want to know is the run-off of a cycle of dry years. With such 
data we can compute the effect of a given diversion more satisfactorily 
than when dealing with means. 

With a cycle of rainfall years, either high or at about the average, it 
is probable that very little effect from such diversion will be observed, 
the consensus of opinion at the present time apparently being that it 
will not exceed about 0.3 to 0.4 foot in depth over the areas affected. 
Owing to the balancing of conditions due to the immense pondage of 
the Great Lakes, and which requires years in order to complete a 
cycle, it is uncertain whether the abstraction of 10,000 cubic feet per 
second at Chicago would be especially detrimental at Niagara Falls, 
although in years of extreme low flow it is probable that it would be 
easily apparent. If, however, the minimum flow of Niagara River is 
really as low as 150,000 to 180,000 cubic feet per second, it is clear 
that the loss of 10,000 cubic feet per second will be a matter worth 
taking into account. 

In the discussion of the effect of diverting 10,000 cubic feet per 
second at Chicago od the levels of the Great Lakes, by Lyman E. 
Cooley, which appears in the proceedings of the annual convention of 
the International Deep Waterways Association, held at Cleveland in 
September, 1895, it is stated that assuming the correctness of the 

1 By way of illustrating further the probable inaccuracy of the Lake Survey figures, it may 
be pointed out that if the determination of evaporation from the water surfaces at 101,890 cubic 
feet per second and run-oflf at 265,000 cubic feet per second for the year 1868 is correct, the total 
outgo from these two sources was 368,890 cubic feet per second, leaving the land evaporation 
for that year at 156,330 cubic feet per second, or at 0.9 foot over the watershed. 

By studying the evaporation of the Upper Mississippi reservoirs, the Des Plaines and 
Muskingum rivers, and other streams herein referred to, it will readily be seen that it is 
exceedingly improbable that a land evaporation as low as 0.9 foot ever occurred over the whole 
watershed of the Great Lakes. 



RAFTER.] RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 63 

figures derived from the Lake Survey placing the mean discharge of 
St. Clair River at 225,000 cubic feet per second, the abstraction of 
10,000 cubic feet per second. would diminish the mean outflow in St. 
Clair River by nearly 4.5 per cent and in Niagara River by about 
3.75 per cent. i\lr. Coo ley says that, reasoning on lines obvious to 
those unacquainted with hydraulic jprinciples, it is apparent that the 
ruling depth in the rivers at mean level can not be lessened by an 
amount greater than the percentages just stated; but if we consider 
the question as an h^^draulic proposition, taking into account the 
relation of mean radius to area and perimeter, it is apparent that the 
effect on lake levels would be only a fraction of that indicated by the 
reduction in volume. 

The literature of the discharge of Niagara River and of the probable 
effect on the lake levels of abstracting 10,000 cubic feet per second at 
Chicago has now grown so extensive as to preclude further discussion 
of the question here. Those wishing to pursue the subject further 
may consult the references given in the footnote. Concluding the 
subject, it may be stated that the studies of the Lake Survey indicate 
a mean discharge of Niagara River of about 265,000 cubic feet per 
second, with a range above and below the mean of from 20 to 30 per 
cent. The only measurements since made were those of December 
to Maj^, 1891-92, which indicate a minimum discharge as low as or 
even lower than 141,000 cubic feet per second, this latter figure 
agreeing fairly well with theoretical considerations derived from 
present knowledge of the actual minimum run-off s of contiguous 
drainage areas. ^ 

1 For literature of discharge of Great Lakes and allied questions see (1) Repts. Chief of Engnrs. 
1868, 1869, 1870, and 1883; (2) Repts. Chief of Engnrs., 1893; (3) Eng. News^ Vol. XXIX (March 3, 
1893); (4) The Lakes and Gulf Waterways, by L. E. Cooley; (5) The level of the Lakes as 
affected by the proposed Lakes and Gulf waterway, a discussion before the Western Society 
of Engineers, in Jour, of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vol. VIII (Mch., 1889); (6) An enlarged water- 
way between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard, by E. L. Corthell, with discus- 
sion, in Jour, of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vols. X and XI (April, June, and December, 1891, and 
July, 1892) ; (7) Lake level effects on account of the sanitary canal at Chicago, by L. E. Cooley, 
in Pi'oc. Internat. Deep Waterways Con., at Cleveland, Sept., 1895; (8) A technical brief , by 
Thomas T. Johnston, covered by the preceding reference; (9) Papers by William Pierson 
Judson, on an Enlarged waterway between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard, 
pamphlets, 1890 and 1893. 



64 



WATEK RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Rainfall and run-off of Des Plaines River, as determined hy the Chicago drainage 

commission, from 1886 to 1897. 

[Inches on watershed.] 





1886. 


1887. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


Months. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


December 






1.76 
3.13 
5.10 
0.89 
0.46 
1.38 
12.72 
1.63 
1.05 
3.35 
6.03 
4.03 
2.03 
2.41 
8.U7 


0.00 
0.89 
5.59 
2.64 
0.53 
0.13 
9.77 
0.03 
0.33 
0.18 
0.53 
0.33 
0.63 


3.67 
1.56 
1.51 
3.99 


1.37 
3.50 
4.84 


1.94 
1.64 
1.31 
1.43 
3.35 
5.38 

lh.05 
3.93 
9.56 
0.39 

12.88 
2.75 
1.83 
3.49 
8.06 


0.00 
0.39 
0.01 
0.43 
1.13 
0.39 
2.25 
1.36 
1.09 
0.45 
2.80 
0.00 
0.00 
0.01 
0.01 


1.90 


































March 














April 














May 




















0.94 
1.53 
3.38 

5.85 
6.93 
1.42 
1.66 
10.01 


0.16 
0.14 
0.01 
0.31 
0.03 
0.01 
0.00 

o.ou 




























July 






3.57 
3.58 








August 






0.03 














September - - - 
October 


0.98 
2.95 
3.89 


0.00 
0.00 


1.39 
4.30 
1.59 

7.18 


0.01 
0.03 
0.04 
0.07 






















Year -. 






27.22 








34.99 


5.06 

































1893. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


1897. 


Months. ' 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain, 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 








1.63 
3.08 
3.44 
1.69 
4.16 
1.93 
13.93 
3.59 
3.08 
0.18 
6.85 
1.98 
1.75 
3.45 
6.18 


0.04 
0.01 
0.31 
5.15 
1.79 
1.31 
8.61 
1.37 
0.14 
0.00 
1.51 
0.00 
0.03 
0.00 
0.02 


3.14 


0.27 


1.66 
3.15 
1.60 
1.33 
0.86 
1.99 
9.58 
1.79 
3.43 
6.49 
10.70 
0.89 
0.51 
5.60 
7.00 


0.31 
0.71 
0.39 
0.11 

0.00 

d.oo 

0.01 
0.01 
0.06 
0.00 
0.00 
0.06 


6.76 
1.13 
3.48 
1.36 
3.79 
4.16 

19.57 
3.83 
3.61 
3.53 
9.95 
6.54 
1.36 
2.16 

10.06 


1.80 
0.26 
1.06 
1.11 
0.77 
0.39 
5.39 
0.09 
0.03 
0.06 
0.17 
0.32 
0.33 
0.48 
1.13 


0.16 
4.53 
2.23 
3.56 
2.23 
0.84 
13.5k 


0.19 








1.55 0.50 










3.13 
3.66 
3.65 
3.35 

Ik.kS 
1.96 
0.60 
0.60 

3.16 
8.28 
0.84 
1.18 
10.30 


1.06 
3.05 
0.76 
1.90 
7.54 
0.08 
0.01 
0.00 
0.09 
0.06 
0.00 
0.01 
0.07 


1.39 


March- 

April 






4.61 

1.88 


May ---- 


6.77 

10.58 
2.23 
1.85 

1U.66 
1.34 
1.54 
3.68 
5.56 


4.24 

6.04 
0.79 
0.03 
6. 86 
0.03 
0.00 
0.03 

o.ou 


0.60 


June 




July 






August - 






September . . - 

October 

November 

















Year 






36.96 


10.14 


27.94 


7.70 


37.38 




39.58 


6.69 

















RAFTEK.] 



RUN-OFF OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 



65 



Evaporation from the Des Plaines ivatershed, as given by differences betiveeu rain- 
fall and run-off in the preceding table. 

[Inches on watershed. ] 



Water year. 


Decem- 
ber to 
May. 


June to 
August. 


Septem- 
ber to 
Novem- 
ber. 


Total. 


1886 




5.54 
5.50 
10.08 


9.97 




1887 


2.95 

11.80 




1889 


8.05 
7.11 
5.52 
6.16 
10.23 
6.94 
8.93 


29 93 


1890 




1892 




7.80 
5.34 
3.07 
10.69 
9.78 




1893 


5.32 
6.94 


16 82 


189i 


20.24 


1895 




1896 


14.18 


32.89 







RUN-OFF OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 



Accordiiig to the report of the Deep Waterways Commission, the 
area of the water surface of Lake Ontario is 7,450 square miles, and 
the area of the tributaiy watershed, exclusive of the area of the lake 
itself, 25,530 square miles. The total area of the drainage basin, 
including both land and water surfaces, is 32,980 square miles. The 
area of the water surface of St. Lawrence River from Gallops Rapids 
to Montreal^ is given at 220 square miles, and the area of the tributary 
watershed at 5,710 square miles; hence the total area of the basin of 
the St. Lawrence from Gallops to Montreal becomes 5,930 square 
miles. 

In the foregoing figures Lake Ontario is considered as beginning in 
Niagara River, at the foot of Niagara Falls and terminating at the 
head of Gallops Rapids, whence the following subdivisions of water- 
surface area are derived: Niagara River, 5 square miles; Lake Onta- 
rio proper, 7,260 square miles; St. Lawrence River, 185 square miles; 
giving a total, as above, of 7,450 square miles. 

Of the total area of watershed of 25,530 square miles, 14,275 square 
miles lie within the State of New York and 11,255 square miles in the 
Province of Ontario. The standard low- water elevation of Lake Onta- 
rio is taken as 244.53 feet, and the standard high- water elevation as 
249.04 feet above tide. 

St. Lawrence River is considered as beginning at Gallops Rapids. 
The following table gives the elevation of water surface at a number 
of points.^ 

1 Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, House Document No. 192, Fifty-fourth 
Congress, second session, pp. 151-1.53. 

2 Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, p. 152. 

IRR 24 5 



()6 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

ElevoMon above tide of loic-water and high-ivater surface of St. Laivrence River. 



Locality. 



Ogdensburg 

Lake St. Francis, at Valleyfield. 
Lake St. Louis, at Melicheville . 
Montreal ,.-.. 



Standard low- 
water. 



Standard high 
water. 



Feet. 

244. 28 

153. 50 

70.0 

23.10 



Feet. 

248. 57 
155.94 

77.50 
35.78 



The area of water surface of the St. Lawrence from Gallops Rapids 
to Montreal is 220 square miles, and the total area of watershed not 
included in the surface of the river is 5,710 square miles, of which 
3,800 square miles lie in New York, 620 in Ontario, and 1,290 in Que- 
bec. The total area of the drainage basin, including water surface 
of the river, is 5,930 square miles. 

The only measurements as to the discharge of St. Lawrence River 
thus far made are those of the Lake Survey, which give a mean dis- 
charge of 300,000 cubic feet per second. The recent data would indi- 
cate that this figure is somewhat too large, as in the Lake Survey dis- 
charge of Niagara River. The streams tributary to Lake Ontario, 
however, issue from a region of heavier rainfall than those tributary to 
the Upper Great Lakes and, as shown by the run-off tables of this report, 
are generally much better water yielders. Taking everything into 
account, it is probable that the minimum discharge of St. Lawrence 
River will not be less than from 8 to 10 inches over the entire water- 
shed per year. A run-off of 12 inches per year over the fentire drain- 
age basin would give a mean discharge of 234,300 cubic feet per 
second, or a discharge of 0.884 cubic foot per square mile per second. 
A mean discharge of 300,000 cubic feet per second, as measured by 
the Lake Survey, would give 1.13 cubic feet per square mile per sec- 
ond. These figures are for the minimum discharge; for years, or 
cycles of years, of average rainfall the run-off would be more. 

RUN-OFF OF INLAND STREAMS OF NEW YORK. 

The data for determining the run-off of the inland streams of New 
York are included in the tables given on pages 67 tc " " 
lowing. The results of measurements on Oatka Cr( 
Genesee River, with a drainage area of 27.5 squai 
point of measurement, from April, 1890, to Novembe 
on page 70. The discharge of Genesee River at Mou .^ „.j^ , v. 

which point the drainage area is 1,070 square miles, from December, 
1893, to November, 1896, is given on page 58. The table on pages 76 and 
77 shows the quantity of water drawn from Hemlock Lake, also a tribu- 



RAFTER.] 



RUN-OFF OF EATON AND MADISON BROOKS. 



67 



tary of Genesee River, and with a drainage area above the point of 
measurement of 43 square miles, for the water years 1880 to 1884, 
inclusive. The table on page 78 gives a similar tabulation of water 
drawn from Skaneateles Lake for the months indicated from October, 
1890, to November, 1897, inclusive. The tables on page 82 give the 
run-off of Hudson River as measured at Mechanicville, where the 
drainage area is 4,500 square miles, from October, 1887, to November, 
1896, inclusive. The table on pages 83 to 85 gives the run-off of Croton 
River, as measured at the Croton dam, where the drainage area is 
338 square miles, for the water years from 1870 to 1896, inclusive. 
The table on page 72 presents measurements at Rochester in com- 
parison with those at Mount Morris. So far as the author can learn, 
the foregoing include all the systematic measurements of streams, for 
considerable periods, thus far made in the State of New York, except 
those b}^ John B. Jervis of the Madison and Eaton brooks in 1835, the 
results of which are presented in his report for that year to the canal 
commissioners.^ 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF EATON AND MADISON BROOKS. 



Eaton and Madison brooks, of which measurements were made by 
Mr. Jervis in 1835, are in the central-eastern part of Madison County 
and tributary to Chenango River. The drainage area of Eaton 
Brook is given by Mr. Jervis at 6,800 acres, or 10.6 square miles, and 
that of Madison Brook as 6,000 acres, or 9.4 square i^'^es. 

Rainfall and run-off of Eaton Brook. 



Month. 


Rainfall. 


Rainfall for 6,800 
acres. 


Run-oflf from 
(5,800 acres. 


Percentage 

of run-oflf to 

rainfall. 


1835. 
June 

July 

August 

September 

October 


Inches. 

6.72 
2.74 

2.86 

1.34 

3.0 

2.20 

0.96 


Cubic feet. 
165,876,480 
67, 634, 160 
70,596,240 
33, 076, 560 
74,052,000 
54, 304, 800 
23,696,640 


Cubic feet. 
59, 407, 394 
27, 994, 240 
13, 547, 058 
9,586,513 
20, 694, 651 
23,772,620 
36, 525, 544 


35.8 
41.4 
19.2 
29.0 
27.2 
43.8 
54.1 


November 

December 

June to Decem- 
ber, inclusive... 

June to October, 
inclusive 


19.82 


489, 236, 880 
411,235,440 


191,528,020 
131,229,856 


39.2 
31.9 







1 The measurements for short periods of several streams and of the water supply of Brooklyn 
are not overlooked in this statement, which is intended to apply to measurements extending 
over a year or more. 



68 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

Rainfall and run-off of Madison Brook. 



Month. 


Eainfall. 


Rainfall for 6,000 
acres. 


Run-oif from 
6,000 acres. 


Percentage 

of run -off to 

rainfall. 


1835. 

Snow of Novem- 
ber-December, 
1834, on ground. 

January 


Inches. 


Cubic. feet. 
87,120,000 
47, 262, 600 
54, 450, 000 
22, 443, 400 

108, 900, 000 
43,124,400 

175, 329, 000 
84,288,600 
66,646,800 
19, 166, 400 
84,070,800 
45,738,000 
16, 552, 800 


Cubic feet. 




2.17 
2.50 
1.03 
5.0 

1.98 
8.05 
3.87 
3.06 
0.88 
3.86 
2.10 
0.76 


23,192,079 

35, 377, 594 
43, 284, 656 
80,776,974 
58,013,176 
20,138,006 
23,141,302 
23,725,060 
19, 158, 957 
19, 544, 880 
18,232,372 
19,401,364 


49.1 
64.9 

192.8 
74.1 

134.5 
11.5 
27.4 
35.6 
99.9 
23.2 
39.9 

117.2 


February 

March 


April 

Mav - - - 


June .- 

July 

August 

September 

October. -- 

November . 

December 

January to Decem- 
ber, inclusive... 
January to May, 

inclusive 


35.26 


855, 092, 800 
363, 300, 400 
429,501,600 


383, 986, 420 
:^40, 644, 479 
105, 708, 205 


44.9 
66.2 
24.6 


June to October, 
inclusive 









The following statements in regard to these measurements are 
abstracted from Mr. Jervis's report:^ From the Eaton Brook results it 
appears that the average run-off from June to December, inclusive, 
was 39.2 per cent of the rainfall and from June to October, inclusive, 
31.9 per cent of the rainfall. The minimum monthly run-off was in 
August, which shows only 19.2 per cent of the rainfall. The rainfall 
in the month of June, 1835, on Eaton Brook was 6.72 inches and in 
July 2.74 inches. The percentage of run-off to rainfall for June was 
35.8, whereas for July it was 41.4, which would indicate that the bulk 
of the June rain must have been at the end of the month. 

1 For Mr. Jervis's original report see Appendix F to Ann. Rept. Canal Com., 1835, Ass. Doc. 
No. 65, pp. 55-60. Mr. Jervis's tables, with extracts from the report, are also quoted in the fol- 
lowing documents: 

(1) Report of F. C. Mills, chief engineer Gen. Val. Can., in Appendix D to Ann. Rept. Can. 
Com., 1837, Ass. Doc. No. 80, p. 81. 

(2) Report of W. H. Talcott, Res. Eng, Gen. Val. Can., 1840, Ass. Doc. No. 96, p. 51. 

(3) Report of the Regents of the University, 1838, Sen. Doc. No. 52, pp. 208-311. 

(4) Documentary History of the New York State Canals. By S. H. Sweet, Dep. State Eng. and 
Sur., 1863, Ass. Doc. No. 8, pp. 203-204. 



RAFTEH] DISCHARGE OF OATKA CREEK. 69 

From the measurements of Madison Brook it appears that in 1835 
the average run-off for the whole year, including the snow on the 
ground on Januarj^ 1, was -i-lr.O per cent, or nearly one-half of the rain- 
fall. Mr. Jervis points out that on account of the storage of the res- 
ervoir Madison Brook record can not betaken for the summer months, 
but that the year should be divided into two periods. For the first 
period he gives the results from January to Msij, inclusive, during 
which the run-off was 66.2 i)er cent of the rainfall, and for the second 
from June to October, during which the run-off was 24.6 per cent of 
the rainfall. During the second period, June to October, inclusive, 
Eaton Brook gave a run-off of 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. Mr. 
Jervis explains these different results bj^ the different characters of 
the two districts drained. Eaton Brook Valley is very narrow and 
the area drained quite steep, with a very close-textured soil. Madi- 
son Brook Valley, on the other hand, is much wider, with easy slopes, 
and the soil in a portion of it is more porous than that on Eaton 
Brook. Mr. Jervis concludes his discussion with the remark that 
Eaton Brook Valley would afford more than an average run-off over 
a large district of country including the usual varities of soil, while 
Madison Brook would probablj' not differ materially from the general 
average in this State. 

In his documentary history of the New York State canals, which is 
included in the annual report of the State engineer and surveyor for 
the fiscal year ending September 30, 1862, S. H. Sweet analyzes Mr, 
Jervis's measurements of discharge of Eaton and Madison brooks and 
points out several probable errors, especially in the Madison Brook 
result, where, because the measurements indicate onl}- what was actu- 
ally discharged through the sluice pipes each day instead of what 
drained off from the valley, he concludes that the real drainage of the 
Madison Brook area in 1835 was about 0.518 of the rainfall, instead of 
0.119, as given by Mr. Jervis. Inasmuch as the Eaton Brook and 
Madison Brook measurements have only historical interest at the 
present time, this branch of the subject is not here pursued at length. 
So far as can be learned, the measurements of these two streams b}^ 
Mr. Jervis, in 1835, were the .first systematic measurement of the run- 
off of streams in the United States. Geologically these streams lie in 
the horizon of the Hamilton shales. 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF OATKA CREEK. 

The measurements of Oatka Creek, recorded in the following table, 
were made at the milldam in the south part of the village of Warsaw, 
in Wyoming County. The dam was new, practically tight, and well 
adapted for securing accurate results. Measurements were also made 
of the outflow of the head race waj^ leading from the dam for different 
elevations of water on the dam, and a curve prepared from which the 
discharge of the race way was read off and added to the discharge over 



70 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



the dam as computed by Francis's weir formula. It is believed that 
the results are accurate within a very small per cent. 

Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Oatka Creek drainage 

area. 









[1 


n inches on the watershed.] 












1890. 


1891. 


1893. 


Months. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evap- 
ora- 
tion. 


Mean 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evap- 
ora- 
tion. 


Mean 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evap- 
ora- 
tion. 


Mean 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


December 

January 

February 

March 

April 


3.33 
4.36 
3.63 

3.72 
3.83 
6.15 

23.01 
4.13 
3.18 
3.33 

10.52 
6.59 
4.53 
3.90 

Ik.Ol 


3.17 
3.16 




37.0 
33.7 
31.5 
39.5 
44.7 
53.8 
38.0 
67.4 
70.3 
66.8 
68.1 
60.3 
50.2 
39.3 
U9.9 


3.61 
4.13 
4.67 
3.70 
1.53 
1.60 

18.22 
4.01 
4.53 
4.35 

12.78 
1.72 
2.49 
3.91 
7.12 


0.97 
2.62 
3.40 
3.87 
1.39 
0.63 
11.88 
0.44 
0.37 
0.35 
1.06 
0.46 
0.34 
0.41 
1.11 




6.3U 

11.72 

6.01 


o 

34.6 
36.1 
39.0 
39.9 
45.7 
53.8 
3U.7 
65.3 
63.9 
65.4 
61,. 8 
63.5 
46.6 
36.5 
U8.5 


3.80 
3.82 
3.71 
1.73 
1.04 
5.74 

19. 8U 
6.67 
4.18 
4.45 

15.30 
1 63 
3.19 
3.74 
6.55 


1.04 
0.78 
1.66 
1.94 
3.31 
1.75 
9.38 
1.41 
3.06 
1.43 
U.90 
0.24 
0.33 
0.57 
l.llf 




10. UG 



10. w 

5.U1 


34.9 
31.0 
36.9 
26.1 
43.1 


May 


50.0 




31.8 


June 


1.85 
0.38 
0.38 
2.51 
1.35 
3.37 
3.13 
5.75 


8.01 
8.26 


67 2 


July 


68.1 


August 

September . . . 

October 

November ..- 


67.1 
67.5 
59.0 
47.2 
35.0 
U7.1 


Year -.. 


47.54 






48.5 


38.12 


14.05 


34.07 


45.7 


41.69 


15.42 


26.27 


45.4 



The drainage area of Oatka Creek above Warsaw includes 27.5 
square miles of rolling semimountainous country. The valley of the 
creek is deep cut, with numerous springs at the head waters. The 
drainage area is mostly deforested and in a high state of cultivation, 
the soil inclining to clay for a considerable portion. Geologically the 
stream lies in the rocks of the Portage formation, as developed in 
western New York. The run-off from this area may be taken as 
fairly typical of many small streams in western New York. 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF GENESEE RIVER. 

The measurements of Genesee River proper, presented in the table 
on page 58, were made at the timber dam of the Mount Morris Hydraulic 
Power Company from September, 1893, to November, 1896, inclusive. 
The crest of this dam is quite irregular, and, in order to apply weir 
formulae to it, an accurate profile was taken and the dam divided into 
a number of approximately level sections, with each section com- 
puted separately for various heights and advancing by 0. 1 of a foot 
up to 10 feet. Working on this plan, the flow over the entire dam, 
which is 337 feet in length, was obtained by adding together the sums 
of the several sections at the corresponding heights and tabulating 
these. A gage graduated to 0.05 foot was erected on the river bridge 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL 




CANYON OF GENESEE RIVER BETWEEN MOUNT MORRIS AND PORTAGE. 



KAFTEu.J DISCHARGE OF GENESEE RIVEK. 71 

a short distance away, with its zero level coinciding with the lowest 
point of the dam. During oi'dinary stages of the river readings of this 
gage were taken twice each day, but in time of high water, in order to 
obtain the movement of floods as accurately as possible, readings 
were taken several times a day. In order to compute the flow readily 
a curve was projected, embodying the data of the tabulation previ- 
ously referred to, and from which, with the given gage heights, the 
flows in cubic feet per second could be quickly read off. 

When the measurements were first begun, it was considered that 

the formula Q = 1142 H^ was best suited to the form of the dam, but 
after more careful consideration it was apparent that the results given 
by this formula were somewhat in excess of the actual discharge, espe- 
cially for the low-water flows. Accordingl}^ a weir was constructed 
during the summer of li896, at a point 2.5 miles above the Hydraulic 
Power Company's dam, where rock bottom clear across the river offered 
a convenient opportunity for such construction without heavy expense. 
This weir was made perfectly tight. 

In order to correlate the measurements at the Mount Morris 
Hydraulic Power Company's dam with those of the weir, two observa- 
tions a day were taken at each place, nearly at the same time ; that 
is to say, they were both taken by the same man, who passed imme- 
diately from the weir to the dam and vice versa. Observations on 
the weir were obtained up to a head of 4 feet, and the corresponding 
discharge computed with the jproper allowance for velocity of 
approach, etc. The depths on the Hydraulic Power Company's dam 
corresponding to the given depths on the weir were so plotted on the 
diagram as to give at once the relation between the flow at the weir 
and the depth on the crest of the Hydraulic Power Company's dam. 
By proceeding in this way the dam was accurately rated up to a dis- 
charge of 5,000 cubic feet per second. For discharges beyond 5,000 
cubic feet per second the original determination has been used. An 
extension of the plotted curves shows that some little distance above 
5,000 cubic feet per second discharge the results of the two methods 
are substantially the same. The two curves crossed at the point of 
about 6,000 cubic feet per second discharge. For discharges above 
10,000 or 15,000 cubic feet per second there is probably an error in 
the results of from 5 to 10 per cent. Below 5,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond it is believed that the results are now accurate within 2 or 3 per 

3 

cent. Francis's formula, Q = 3.33 L H^ has been used for the weir 
computations. 

The measurements taken previously to the construction of the weir 
and the rating of the dam, as aforesaid, have all been corrected to 
conform to the new determinations; hence all the data of the Genesee 
measurements of this table may be considered as accurate within the 
limits stated. 



72 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Discharge measurements of Genesee River have also been kept for 
the last three years at Rochester, where the drainage area is about 
2,400 square miles. From data obtained during the summer of 1895 
it was apparent that these measurements also require a correction in 
order to give the approximate true flow of the stream during the 
period covered. Without going into detail it maj^ be stated that the 
Rochester measurements in the following table give the corrected 
results, which are now probably accurate within from 5 to 10 per 
cent: 



Comparison of the measurements of Genesee River at Rochester ivith those at Mount 
Morris for the water years 1S94 to 1896, inclusive. 

[In cubic feet per second, and with yearly means also in inches on the watershed.] 



Month. 



December -. 

January 

February 

March-- 

April 

May 

June - 

July 

August- - 

September 

October 

November 

Year - 

Inches on watershed 



189t. 



As per 
record. 



3,9U 
3,841 

2,584 
6,008 
5,646 
6,304 
4,576' 
3,951 
1,055 
973 
1,656 
1.664 
1,326 
1,782 
1,573 



3,( 



19.30 



Cor- 
rected. 



3,914 
2,841 

2,584 

6,008 

5,646 

6,304 

U,576 

2,800 

792 

732 

1,1,26 

1,500 

920 

1,600 

1,335 



,978 



18.35 



Esti- 
mated 
from 
measure- 
ments at 

Mount 
Morris, a 



4,797 
2,867 
1,954 
6,794 
7,172 
9,080 
5,U77 
2,321 
392 
442 
1,003 
1,963 
899 
1,729 
1,523 



3,370 



19.38 



1895. 



As per 
record. 



1,459 

1,619 

977 

4,035 

3,083 

1,309 

2,099 

885 

645 

600 

728 

407 

366 

834 

53U 



1,364 



8.48 



Cor- 
rected. 



1,100 

1,200 

700 

4,035 

3,083 

900 

1,8US 

535 

390 

400 

250 
220 

500 

333 



1,116 



6.41 



Esti- 
mated 
from 
measure- 
ments at 

Mount 
Morris, a 



1,256 
l,3a5 

495 

3,985 

4,257 

385 

1,958 

283 

232 

254 

256 

221 

230 

993 

478 



6.67 



As per 
record. 



1,839 

1,645 

2,702 

3,725 

7,623 

1,576 

3,181 

1,317 

854 

585 

.977 

324 

3,371 

993 

1,353 



2,174 



12.48 



Cor- 
rected. 



1,700 

1,400 

3,702 

3,725 

7,623 

1,300 

3,05U 

1,000 

645 

440 

692 

240 

3,000 

745 

1,006 



1,951 



11.20 



Esti- 
mated 
from 
measure- 
ments at 

Mount 
Morris, a 



2,710 

964 

3,005 

6,158 

7,173 

347 

3,218 

654 

501 

416 

522 

337 

3,667 

1,738 

1,926 



2,330 



13.80 



a Increased in proportion to increased drainage area at Rochester. 

As interesting data from Genesee River measurements, we may dis- 
cuss the flood of May 20-23, 1894, at which time the approximate 
discharge of the stream at Mount Morris, from a drainage area of 
1,070 square miles, was as follows: 

Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris during the flood in May, 1894. 

Cubic feet 
per second. 

May 18, 7 a. m 600 

May 18, 6 p. m 3,090 

May 19, 7 a. m.... 5,530 

May 19, 6p.m... 5,090 

May 20, 7 a. m ...,16,580 

May 20, 12 m ..22,210 



RAFTER.] 



DISCHARGE OF GENESEE RIVER. 



73 



Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris duri}ig the flood in May, 18'.)/^ — Cont'd. 

Cubic feet 
per second. 

May 20, 6 p. m - 28,000 

May 21, 3.30 a. Ill 42,000 

May 21, 7 a.m... -- - -.. 33,000 

May 21, 12 m .- ..- - ....30,730 

May 21, 6 p. m ..-. 26,500 

May22, 7 a. m 15,650 

May 22, 12 m - ..13,650 

May 22, 6 p. m 10,720 

May23, 7 a. m ..- 7,300 

May 23, 12 m 6,700 

May 23, 6 p. m 5,690 

May 24, 7 a. in... 5,390 

The total run-off from 7 a. m. of Maj^ 19 to 7 a. m. of May 24 was 
nearly 6,900,000,000 cubic feet. 

On the morning of May 21 the flats in the broad, level valley of 




Ftg. 2.— Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris, New York, 1893 to 1896. 

Genesee River and Oanaseraga Creek, between Dansville, Mount 
Morris, and Rochester, and which have an area of from 60 to 80 square 
miles, were nearly flooded, in some localities to a depth of from 4 to 
6 feet. On account of the large pondage bj^ these flats, although the 
maximum run-off at Mount Morris was 42,000 cubic feet per second 
at 3.30 a. m. on the morning of May 21, at Rochester the maximum 
flow did not at anj^ time exceed about 20,000 cubic feet per second. 
We have, then, a case where a large pondage has, by prolonging the 
time of run-off, modified a flood flow over 50 per cent. As further 
illustrating the effect of a large reservoir, or, what is the same thing, 
the effect of a large pond area iu modifying the effect of an extreme 



74 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. 



[NO. 24. 



flood, reference may be made to fig. 3, in which, with time as abscissas 
and run-off as ordinates, the run-off record of Genesee River for 
May 18-24, 1894, has been plotted. The lower curve of that figure 
may be taken as representing approximately the law of the run-off of 
any generally distributed heavy rainfall on the catchment area of this 
stream. In making this statement it is not overlooked that flood 
flows at other seasons of the year may differ somewhat in their move- 
ment from that of May, 1894. Inasmuch as the rapidity and intensity 
of the run-off of any given stream depend largely upon the topography, 
the statement may be made that the general law of movement of 
floods in Genesee River is indicated by the lower curve of fig. 3. 
With this understanding we may assume any other run-off and con- 
struct the approximate curve by drawing it generally parallel to the 
curve of the actually observed case. In this way the upper curve of 
fig. 3, representing the curve of a fiood one and one-half times greater 
than that of May, 1894, has been produced, slight irregularities of the 
lower curve having been neglected in projecting the upper one. 



5000 
4000 
30001 
2000( 
1000 
























r\ 
































D 




















1. 




^ 






























S 

^ 


















1 


f 


,'°\ 




K 




























^ 
















.( 


/ 




i 


V 


^. 


-\ 


\ 


























k 
^ 














/ 


^1 


A 

'4 


f 




■^^ 






\ 


^ 






















1 












/ 


/ 


f 














■ij. 




X 

>- 


-- 


,^ 


L 














r^^ 


,^ 


1^ 


-^^ 


O- — 


■ — 


ki 


/ 
























^~" 


0-. 


'— 


,-_ 


— 


o— - 


— 


__ 


6 AM NOON 6 R M 
MAY 16 


6 AM NOON 6RM 
MAY 19 


6A.M NOON 6P.M 
MAY 20 


6A.M NOON 6 PM 
MAY El 


6A.M NOON eP.M 
MAY 22 


6AM NOON eP.M 
MAY 23 


6 AM NOON ePM 
MAYZ4 



Fig. 3. -Flood flow of Genesee River, May 18-24, 1894. 

A flood flow one and one-half times as great as that of May, 1894, 
which culminated in a maximum of about 42,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond at 2.30 a. m. of May 21, gives a maximum of 63,000 cubic feet per 
second, the movement of which would be, under the assumptions, 
substantially as in the upper curve of fig. 3. As to the probability 
of a maximum flood flow of 63,000 <. '^^'^ feet per second on the upper 
Genesee drainage area, the case of ^'ghboring Chemung River 

may be cited, where a flood flow oi 67.1 cubic feet per second per 
square mile occurred in June, 1889. This figure applied to the upper 
Genesee would give a possible maximum run-off of 71,126 cubic feet 
per second. 

Geologically, the drainage area of Genesee River above Mount 
Morris, the point of measurement, lies in the shales, sandstones, etc., 
of the Portage and Chemung groups. Its extreme head waters south 



KAFTEH] DISCHARGE OF HEMLOCK LAKE. 75 

of the Pennsylvania line issue from the lower Carboniferous. Gen- 
erally the soils throughout the whole basin are heavy and tenacious, 
inclining to clay. Their capacity for absorbing and retaining water 
must, therefore, be considered as small. 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF HEMLOCK LAKE. 

Measurements of the run-off of the Hemlock Lake drainage area for 
the water years 1880 to 1884, inclusive, were made by the Rochester 
Waterworks. Hemlock Lake lies at an elevation of 896 feet above 
tide, and has a length of 6.5 miles, Avith an average width of about 
0.5 of a mile. The area of the surface at low water is 1,828 acres. The 
total drainage basin, including the area of the lake, is 27,554 acres, or 
about 43 square miles. The shores are bold, and on the east side rise 
to a height of several hundred feet above the lake in a distance of 2 
or 3 miles. At the head of the lake there is a swamp of 118 acres, 
partially covered at high water. 

The outflow of the lake during the period covered by the measure- 
ments included in the following table may be considered as having 
taken place at three points: (1) At the natural outlet of the lake; 
(2) at an artificial channel through Avhich water was discharged at will 
for the benefit of the millers on the outlet; and (3) through the con- 
duit of the Rochester waterworks. The run-offs given are the sums 
of these several outgoes. In order to determine the outflow of the 
natural outlet, a Aveir was constructed and the discharge observed at 
different heights of the lake surface. The discharge into the artiflcial 
channel Avas through submerged orifices of known dimensions, and has 
been computed from standard formulae for the discharge of such 
orifices, the size of the openings and the difference of level of water 
surfaces aboA^e and below being known. 

The discharge of the conduit of the Rochester Avaterw^orks is as 
computed from standard formulae for discharge through pipes. Meas- 
urements made by the author and others during the last few years 
shoAv that the computed quantities passing through the conduit Avere 
not far from correct. As a whole, it is believed that the Hemlock 
Lake results are accurate Avithin from 5 to 8 per cent. 



76 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no 24. 



Water drawn from Hemlock Lake for the water years 1880 to 1884-, inclusive. 
[In inches on the watershed.] 



Month. 



December. 
January... 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August — 

September 
October ... 
November 

Year. 



1880. 



Mean 
month- 
ly ele- 
vation 
of lake 
sur- 
face. 



-1.67 
-0.91 
-0.11 
+0.31 
+0.79 
+0.87 
-O.IU 
+0.45 
-0.15 
-0.70 
—0.13 
-1. 13 
-1.57 
—1.24 
—1.31 

—0.43 



Rain- 
fall. 



1.36 
1.37 
1.45 
1.47 
1.25 



1.66 
1.93 
3.46 
7.05 
1.35 
3.85 
0.86 
6.06 



31.99 



Water 
drawn. 



0.16 
0.15 
0.16 
0.15 
0.15 
0.17 
0.9k 
0.36 
0.41 
0.35 
1.12 
0.31 
0.31 
0.39 
1.01 



3.07 



Rain 

fall, 

less the 

water 
drawn 



7.9h 



5.05 



18.92 



Tem- 
per- 
ature. 



a 31. 4 
a 35. 5 
a 27. 3 

a 31. 8 
a 45. 7 
71.8 
38.9 
76.5 
77.1 
74.4 
76.0 
69.7 
53.4 
37.1 
53. h 



51. 



1881. 



Mean 
month- 
ly ele- 
vation 
of lake 
sur- 
face. 



-1.33 
—1.47 
-0.11 
+1.20 

+1.47 
+1.33 
+0.18 
+1.08 
+0.58 

-\-0.55 
-0.69 
-0.81 
-0.71 

—0.7 k 



+0.04 



Rain- 
fall. 



0.73 
3.34 
1.08 
1.93 
0.53 
3.33 
8.71 
3.13 
3.71 
0.95 
7.79 
1.73 
4.23 
1.81 
7.77 



24.27 



"Water 
drawn. 



0.49 
0.44 
0.54 
1.73 
1.24 
1.11 
5.55 
0.76 
0.43 
0.50 
1.69 
0.35 
0.33 
0.46 
1.1k 



8. 



Rain- 
fall, 
less the 

water 
drawn. 



3.16 



6.10 



15.1 



Tem- 
per- 
ature. 



27.3 
34.7 
29.7 
39.1 
45.3 
69.7 
39 3 
73.9 
75.6 
80.0 
76.5 
77.9 
59.1 
44.8 
60.6 



53.9 



a Interpolated from average of fifteen years. 



Month. 



Mean 
month- 
ly ele- 
vation 
of lake 
sur- 
face. 



Rain- 
fall. 



Water 
drawn. 



Rain- 
fall, 
less the 

water 
drawn. 



Tem- 
pera- 
ture. 



1883. 



Mean 
month- 
ly ele- 
vation 
of lake 
sur- 
face. 



Rain- 
fall. 



Water 
drawn. 



Rain 

fall, 

less the 

water 
drawn 



Tem- 
pera- 
ture. 



December. 
January... 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August — 

September 
October ... 
November 

Year. 



-0.05 
+1.63 
+1.39 

+1.67 
+ 1.51 
+1.61 
+1.29 
+1. 45 
+0.81 
+0.15 
+0.80 
-0.44 
-0.99 
—1.38 
—0.9k 



4.02 
1.03 
1.07 
1.47 
2.49 
5.29 
15.37 
2.31 
1.42 
2.17 
5.90 
1.78 
1.00 
1.41 
k.l9 



0.66 
2.04 
1.40 
2.82 
1.53 
1.74 
10.19 
1.85 
0.62 
0.41 
2.88 
0.43 
0.65 
0.36 
l.kk 



39.8 
29.4 
37.0 
38.7 
48.5 
57.4 
kl.8 
71.9 
78.0 
76.8 
75.6 
69.4 
61.4 
41.8 
57.5 



-1.51 
—1.56 
+0.03 
+0.95 

+1.57 
+1.59 
+0.18 
+1.38 
+ 1.29 
+0.64 
+1.10 
+0.25 
+0.07 
+0.17 
+0.16 



0.91 
0.84 
3.11 
0.90 
2.43 
9.54 
17.73 
4.52 
2.13 
2.86 
9.51 
2.36 
1.62 
3.03 
6.00 



0.19 
0.21 
0.28 
0.68 
1.58 
2.59 
5.53 
1.65 
1.08 
0.45 
3.18 
0.21 
0.18 
0.19 
0.58 



5.k2 



31.0 
35.7 
30.6 
33.3 

47.8 
59.1 
37.9 
74.3 
75.7 
73.7 
7k. 5 
65.1 
55.7 
45.1 
55.3 



+0.61 35.46 



14.51 10.95 



54.3 



+0.41 



J. 34 



9.! 



33.95 



51.4 



RAFTER] DISCHARGE OF SKANEATELES LAKE. 77 

Water drawn from Hemlock Lake for the water years 18S0 to I8S4., efc— Cont'd. 



Month. 



1884. 



Mean 
monthly 
eleva- 
tion of 

lake 
surface. 



Rain- 
fall. 



Water 
drawn. 



Rain- 
fall, 
less the 
water 
drawn. 



Temper- 
ature. 



December 
January .. 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July. 

August — 

September 
October . . - 
N ovember 

Year 



+0. 

-fo. 

+1. 
+1. 

+1. 
+1. 
+i. 

+1. 

+0. 
+0. 
4-0. 
-0. 
-0. 

— 1. 

—0. 



2.01 
1.78 
3.17 
3.18 
2.21 
3.30 
1U.65 
2.44 
3.98 
1.08 
7.50 
2.34 
1.34 
1.01 
U.59 



0.54 
1.01 
2.70 
2.71 
1.47 
1.69 
10.12 
0.75 
0.37 
0.^ 
1.36 
0.71 
0.20 
0.18 
1.09 



U.53 



6.1k 



3.50 



-fO.55 



26.74 



12.57 



14. 17 



34.0 
24.7 
30.3 
30.5 
42.7 
56.7 
36.5 
70.4 
68.4 
70.8 
69.9 
66.9 
52.3 
38.9 
5-2.7 

48.9 



The drainage area of Hemlock Lake is, as stated, 27,554 acres, and 
the area of the lake itself at the elevation iO.O is 1,828 acres; hence 
the lake surface is 6. 6 per cent of the total drainage area, or the drainage 
area is 15.1 times the area of the lake surface. On this basis 1 inch on 
the whole area is 15.1 inches on the lake. Taking into account these 
statements, it is clear that the data of the table give approximately 
the natural run-off, although for exact figures corrections for actual 
elevations of lake surface at the beginning, as well as at the end of each 
year, should be applied. On this point see the discussion on the mini- 
mum flow of Hemlock Lake, on pages 92 and 93. Geologically, the 
Hemlock Lake Basin i)roper is in the Hamilton and Marcellus shale, 
with the hills at the side rising into the rocks of the Portage group. 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF SKANEATELES LAKE. 

The measurements of the run-off of Skaneateles Lake drainage area, 
as given in the following table, have been made by the Syracuse 
waterworks over a dam at the foot of the lake or over a weir a short 
distance below since October, 1890. Previous to 1886 this lake was 
the principal feeder of the Jordan level of Erie Canal, but in that 
year Otisco and Owasco lakes were also made feeders. The Skane- 
ateles Lake dam was reconstructed 9 feet high by the State in 1887, 
and in 1893 was again rebuilt by the Syracuse water board with its 
spillway 2 feet higher than the crest of the old dam. The area of the 
water surface of Skaneateles Lake is 12.75 square miles, and the area 
of the watershed, including the area of the lake, is 73 square miles. 



78 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. 



[NO. 24, 



The elevation above tide is 867 feet. The lake lies in a deep valley, 
with bold shores rising several hundred feet at either side. The fig- 
ures given in the following table do not represent in any degree the 
natural run-off of this drainage area, but merely the water yield dur- 
ing the years indicated, in which there was large storage. 

In March, 1895, the city of Syracuse began to draw water through 
its new conduit to Skaneateles Lake. Since that time the results 
given in the table are the quantity flowing in the outlet as measured 
on the weir located at Willow Glen plus the outflow through the con- 
duit. Previous to March, 1895, the results are from measurements at 
the dam at the foot of the lake. The earlier results are possibly 
affected by errors of from 12 to 15 per cent, while the latter are prob- 
ably accurate within from 2 to 5 per cent. Geologically the drainage 
basin of Skaneateles Lake is in the Hamilton group of rocks. 

Water drawn from and monthly elevatians of Skaneateles Lake for the months 
indicated for the water years 1890 to 1897, inclusive. 

[Water drawn in inches on the watershed.] 



Year, etc. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


To- 
tal. 


1890: 




























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


-1.92 


-2.08 


-3.35 


+0.33 


+0.33 


+0.35 


+0.37 


+0.50 


-0.43 


-1.33 


-1.08 


-1.16 





Water drawn. .- 






















1.59 


1.67 




1891: 




























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


—1.00 


-1.50 


—1.00 


+0.16 


+0.50 


0.0 


—0.75 


-1.42 


-3.31 


-3.35 


-4.13 


-5.35 




Water drawn. .. 


1.63 


].63 


1.52 


3.43 


3.57 


a 1.90 


1.23 


1.33 


1.93 


1.79 


1.61 


1.31 


30.76 


1892: 




























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


—5.79 


-5.50 




-5.0 


-3.67 


-1.83 


-0.67 


-0.33 


—0.67 


-1.08 


-1.83 


-3.58 




Water drawn 




















1.35 


1.34 


1.13 




1893: 






















Mean lake sur- 




























face 


—2.56 
1.09 


-2.71 

0.87 


—2.93 
0.87 


—3.75 
1.10 


-1.33 
1.18 


0.0 
3.06 


+0.33 
3.10 


-0.67 
1.98 


-1.43 
U.53 


-2.17 
1.08 


-3.00 

1.58 


-3.83 

1.58 




Water drawn.. _ 


20.03 


1891: 




























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


-4.75 
1.38 


—4.48 
0.86 








-2.50 
0.26 


-1.37 
0.15 


+0.35 
0.57 


-0.06 
1.07 


-0.88 
1.39 


-1.00 
1.46 


—1.31 
1.44 




Water drawn 










1895: 










Mean lake sur- 




























face 


-1.58 
0.32 


-1.30 
0.24 


-1.75 
0.33 


-0.37 
1.39 


-0.17 
3.55 


+0.14 
2.14 


-0.40 
1.64 


-0.93 
1.77 


-1.67 

1.87 


-2.18 
1.64 


-3.13 
1.85 


—4.14 
1.75 




Water drawn.. . 


17.38 


1896: 


























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


-4.56 


-4.33 


-4.60 


-4.08 


—3.43 


-1.35 


-1 58 


-1.94 


—3.23 


-2.94 


—3.43 


—3.85 




Water drawn... 


1.58 


1.51 


1.46 


].61 


1.50 


1.59 


1.61 


1.51 


1.50 


1..51 


1.50 


1.38 


18.36 


1897: 




























Mean lake sur- 




























face 


-3.92 
1.35 


-4.13 
1.25 


-4.39 
1.08 


-4.56 
1.06 


-3.46 
0.36 


-2.67 
1.12 


-3.50 
1.34 


-3.65 












Water drawn... 


3.21 


1.41 


1.61 


1.47 


15.61 



a Interpolated. No record. Mean of preceding and following months used. 



RAFTEK.J INLAND STREAMS OF NEW YORK. 79 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF HUDSON RIVER. 

Measurements of the flow of Hudson River have been made over 
the dam of^the Duncan Company, at Mechanicville. In 1887 this 
company began dailj' measurement of the amount of water flowing in 
Hudson River at their mill.^ With the exception of one or two days 
this record has been kept for every working day since October 1, 1887. 
A record has also been kept of the number, size, and kind of turbine 
water wheel in use for the same period. The Duncan Company placed 
all this material at the disposal of the survey of the Upper Hudson 
Valley, of which the author has had charge, thus enabling him to 
compute the mean daily flow of the river for each working day from 
October 1, 1887, to November 30, 1896. The flow of Sundays and hol- 
idaj^s, when no observations were taken, has been assumed as a mean 
between the preceding Saturday and the following Monday, etc. The 
dam is a substantial structure of masonry 16 feet high, with a length 
of 794 feet between the abutments. The crest is stated by John R. 
Kaley, the constructing engineer, to be perfectly level, and from all 
that can be learned it appears that the daily observations have been 
taken with such care as to leave no reason for doubting that this is a 
fairly accurate exhibit of the daily flow of the stream for the period 
covered. This record is therefore considered to be accurate within 
from 5 to 8 per cent. 

The greatest depth on this dam in the nine-year period, 1888 to 1896, 
Inclusive, occurred May 5, 1893, when the gage showed a depth of 
7.83 feet and the mean flow of the day was over 53,000 cubic feet per 
second. The drainage area of Hudson River above the Mechanic- 
ville dam is taken at 4,500 square miles. 

Experience in flows over dams of this length and Avith depths as 
great as from 7 to 8 feet is as yet rather limited in this country, and 
the question was raised as to the best method of computing the dis- 
charge for a case like the one under discussion. The engineers of the 
British Government in India have had, in connection with their large 
irrigation works, perhaps more experience in this class of measure- 
ment than all others combined, and the formulae used by them appear 
more rational in form than those commonly used in the United States 
for such computations, and after some study it was decided to use 
these. As many American engineers may not be familiar with these 
formulas they are here reproduced. They take the following form • 

Q = fLCV2'g^, (1) 

in which — 
Q = the discharge over a thin-edged clear overfall, in cubic feet per 

second, 
L = the length of the dam in linear feet, 

1 Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, p. lOi. 



80 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [No.2i 



C = coefficient depending for its value on (Z, 
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2, 
d = depth on crest, in linear feet. 

Equation (1) may also take the form — 

Q = 5.35L C VcP. (2) 

To find C for different values of d, we have — 

This gives a series of values of C corresponding to d. For instance, 
for d = 0.26 foot, C = 0.651; for d = 0.50 foot, C = 0.649, and so on. 

For a wide-crested dam the coefficient is further modified to suit 
the actual width of the crest. For this we have given the expression — 

O.OJS^CiB + l)), (,) 

in which — 

B = the width of the crest in linear feet ; 

C = the coefficient for a thin-edged weir, corresponding to a depth 

d, as per equation (3), and 
C = the adjusted coefficient corresponding to a given breadth B and 
a depth d^ 

In the case of the Mechanic ville dam we have a stone crest 7 feet 
in width and slightly inclined upstream. The width of the river a 
short distance above the dam is considerably over 800 feet ; the depth 
for some distance back is from 16 to 20 feet. In order to avoid a 
correction for velocity of approach, a crest was assumed 5 feet wide 
and values of C were computed on that basis. 

Having obtained values of C for d = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 
1.75 feet, and so on up to 8 feet, corresponding values of Q were com- 
puted and plotted at a large scale as a curve with values of d as 
abscissas and the corresponding flows as ordinates. From this curve 
intermediate values of Q have been read off. 

1 The method of deducing equations (3) and (4) may be found in Mullin's Irrigation Manual, 
1890, pp. 11, 12, 138, 139, 171, 172. 



RAFTER.] 



DISCHARGE OP HUDSON RIVER. 



81 




IS 8 9^ 



"""liiSimS"! ''^" 



^vmp 



Fig. 4.— Discharge of Hudson River at Mechanicville, New York, 1888 to 1897. 

IRR 24 6 



82 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Run-off of Hudson River at Mechanicville from October, 1887, to November, 1896, 

inclusive, (a) 

[In cubic feet per second.] 



Month. 



December . 
January . . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

Mean 

June . - 

July 

August..".. 

Mean 
September 

October 

November 

Mean 



Yearly mean. 



1887. 



3,365 
4,190 



1888. 



7,820 



1889. 



10, 014 
10,983 
3,790 

8,280 
13, 690 
8,871 
9,337 
6,869 
5,737 
4,273 
5, 718 
1,963 
3,740 
7,888 
U,53S 



1,197 



1890. 



13,226 

11,272 

7,913 

11,129 

15,053 

17,931 

13, 821 

7,392 

1,950 

3,019 

3,7U8 

8,844 

9,215 

9,121 

9,061 



9,597 



1891. 



3,244 

8,284 
11,664 
17, 736 
30,021 
5,533 
11,021 
3,200 
2,337 
2,666 
■2,957 
3,040 
1,473 
4,088 
3 521 



6,867 



1893. 



8,577 

18,857 

9,263 

10,929 

31,554 

19,622 

lU, 831 

12,395 

9,387 

5,485 

9,019 

4,448 

3,819 

7,604 

U,93U 



10, 



1893. 



4,031 
3,192 

4,805 
8,250 
17,889 
22,385 
10, IIU 
4,801 
3,521 
5,005 
U,10^ 
6,870 
3,865 
3,639 
h,7Sl 

7,271 



1894. 



7,217 
6,757 
4,836 
14, 738 
11,135 
7,566 
8,759 
7,097 
3,168 
2,456 
4, 209 
1,889 
3,649 
6,379 
3,969 

6,418 



1895. 



4,367 
3,876 
3,543 
4,204 

33,822 
6,850 
7,759 
2,816 
2,559 
3,901 
3, 095 
2,639! 
3,631 
8,431 
U,539 



5,780 



1896. 



10,899 
6,787 
4,668 

13, 600 

34,973 
4,610 

10, 921 
4,738 
2,773 
2,443 
3,317 
3,879 
4,106 

11,353 
6,112 



7,818 



[In inches on the watershed.] 



December . 
January... 
February . 

March 

April ...... 

May 

Total 

June 

July 

August 

Total 
September 
October ... 
November 

Total 



Yearly total. 



0.61 
1.04 



3.05 
1.63 
0.89 
1.75 
5.36 
5.49 
17.06 
1.33 
0.39 
0.44 
2.05 
0.71 
1.18 
3.64 
U.53 



23.64 



2.57 
3.81 
0.88 
3.13 
3.39 
2.27 
llf.OU 
1.70 
1.47 
1.09 
U.26 
0.49 
0.96 
1.96 
S.ltl 



31.71 



3.39 

3.89 
1.83 
3.85 
3.73 
4.59 
19.28 
1.83 
0.50 
0.53 
2.85 
2.19 
3.36 
3.26 
6.81 



0.83 
3.12 
2.70 
4.55 
4.97 
1.42 
16.59 
0.79 
0.60 
0.68 
2.07 
0.51 
0.38 
1.01 
1.90 



30.56 



3.37 
4.83 
2.23 
3.80 
5.35 
5.03 
22.50 
3.08 
3.38 
1.41 
6.87 
1.10 
0.73 
1.89 
3.71 



33.08 



1.03 

0.83 
1.09 
3.11 
4.44 
5.71 
15.20 
1.19 
0.65 
1.38 
3.12 
1.70 
0.99 
0.90 
3.59 



31.90 



1.85 
1.73 
1.13 
3.78 
2.76 
1.94 
13.18 
1.76 
0.81 
0.63 
3.20 
0.47 
0.94 
1.58 
2.99 



19.37 



1.12 
0.99 

0.82 
1.08 
5.91 
1.76 
11.68 
0.70 
0.66 
1.00 
2.36 
0.65 
0.69 
3.08 
3.h2 



17.46 



3.79 
1.74 
1.13 
3.49 
6.30 
1.18 
16.52 
1.18 
0.73 
0.63 
2.53 
0.71 
1.05 
3.83 
U.58 



23.63 



a Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, pp. 107, 120. 



DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF CROTON RIVER. 



The record of the run-off of Croton River as measured at the old 
Croton dam for the watei years 1870 to 1896, inclusive, is given in the 
table on j)ages 83 to 85. The watershed of the Croton consists of a 
broken, hilly country Avith its surface soil composed principallj^ of sand 
and gravel. Clay, hardpan, and peat, while found in a few localities, 
are for the whole area only present to a limited extent. The rock for- 
mation consists generally of gneiss, although strata of limestone, some 
micaceous and talcose slates, with veins of granite, serpentine, and 



RAFTER.] 



DISCHARGE OF CROTON RIVER. 



83 



iron ore, occur in a few places. The drainage area lies almost entirely 
in the State of New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut 
It amounts to about 338 square miles above the old Croton dam and 
to 300 square miles above the new Croton dam under construction. 
The main river is formed by three branches, known, respectively, as 
East, Middle, and West branches, which, rising in the southern part 
of Dutchess County, flow south through Putnam County and unite 
near its south boundary. The river then flows across Westchester 
County to Hudson River, into which it empties at Croton Point, about 
30 miles north of the city of New York. The principal tributaries 
aside from East, Middle, and West branches are Kisko, Titicus, Cross^ 
and Muscoot rivers. The monthly and annual rainfall of the Croton 
watershed, as well as the run-off of the water years, from 1870 to 1896, 
inclusive, are given in the following table. The average annual rain- 
fall for this period was 48.10 inches and the run-off 24.65 inches.^ 

Rainfall and run-off of Croton River drainage area from 1870 to 1S9G, inclusive, 

[lu inches on tlie waterslied.] 



Month. 



December . 
January... 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October ... 
November 

Total 



1870. 



Rain- 
fall. 



5.96 
4.51 
6.40 
3.80 
5.45 
2.30 

2S. h2 
2.06 
3.43 
5.10 

10. 59 
2.85 
4.73 
2.51 

10.09 



49.10 



Run- 
off. 



3.07 
3.99 
4.28 
3.56 
4.11 
1.86 
20. S7 
0.83 
0.51 
0.51 
1.85 
0.35 
0.42 
0.62 
1.39 



1871. 



1872. 



1873. 



1874. 



1875. 



Rain- Run- Rain- 
fall, off. fall. 



1.49 
3.80 
3.81 
4.27 
3.01 
3.45 

19. S3 
5.73 
5.07 
5.24 

IG.Ok 
1.44 
6.18 
4.35 

11.97 



0.64 
0.59 
2.21 
3.52 
2.02 
2.06 
11.0k 
1.43 
0.73 
0^85 
3.01 
0.63 
1.92 
3.41 
5.96 



24.11 ! 47.84 20.01 



2.59 
1.44 
1.22 
2.59 
3.04 
3.69 

Ik. 57 
4.00 
4.34 
5.99 

Ik. 33 
3.69 
2.15 
4.91 

10.75 



.65 



Run- 
off. 



2.11 
2.08 
1.25 
1.75 
3.11 
1.29 
11.59 
1.22 
0.61 
1.64 
3.k7 
1.25 
1.13 
2.67 
5.05 



20.11 



3.68 
5.66 
3.09 
3.08 
3.77 
2.91 

22.19 
0.71 
2.21 
5.73 
8.65 
3.73 
5.13 
3.72 

12.58 



Rain- Run- Rain- 
fall, off. fall. 



43.42 



1.45 
4.29 
1.72 
4.03 

7.12 

2.19 

20.80 

0.54 



4.13 
6.96 
2.78 
1.57 
6.31 
1.99 
23.7k 
3.57 



Run- 
off. 



0.49 


5.98 


0.71 


2.75 


1.7k 


12.30 


0.52 


3.56 


1.45 


2.40 


1.81 


2.72 


3.78 


8.68 


26.32 


44.72 



8.22 
2.79 
3.03 
3.63 
3.19 
2k.2k 
0.93 
1.43 
0.89 

0.58 
0.81 
0.74 
2.13 



Rain- 
fall. 



1.78 
2.74 
3.47 
4.99 
3.04 
1.08 

17.10 
3.02 
3.10 

10.33 

16. k5 
2.11 
3.61 
4.61 

10.33 



61 43.! 



Run- 
off. 



98 
0.65 
4.09 
3.24 
5.58' 
1.86 
16. kO 
0.59 
0.58 
5.80 
6.97 
0.90 
0.85 
2.05 



27.17 



1 See Wegmam's History of the Water Supply of the City of New York, Chap. IX, The Croton 
watershed. 



84 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

Rainfall and run-off of Croton River drainage area from 1810 to 1896, etc. — Cont'd. 





1876. 


1877. 


1878. 


1879. 


1880. 


1881. 


Month. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


December 


1.56 


1.84 


2.35 


1.19 


' 1.52 


1.97 


8.74 


7.23 


4.36 


2.03 


2.49 


0.54 


January 


1.42 


1.59 


2.68 


0.84 


4.49 


3,85 


2.52 


1.45 


4.00 


2.75 


4.19 


0.76 


February 


4.91 


3.65 


0.80 


1.55 


3.65 


3.93 


2.85 


2.77 


3.93 


2.99 


5.28 


4.33 


March 


6.33 


7.16 


7.66 


6.97 


3.10 


3.89 


4.96 


4.30 


4.51 


3.01 


6.14 


6.09 


April 


4.43 
3.99 


6.39 
2.03 


2.35 

0.85 


3.02 
0.89 


2.85 
4.97 


1.69 
1.57 


5.10 
2.45 


5.12 
1.77 


3.99 
1.17 


2.09 
0.98 


1.67 
3.74 


1.88 


May 


1.39 




22. 6h 


22.66 


16.69 


1U.U6 


20.58 


15.89 


26.62 


22.6/, 


20.85 


13.85 


23.51 


1U.98 


June 


3.53 

3.43 


0.71 
0.55 


4.95 
4.65 


0.62 
0.51 


4.65 

4.28 


1.53 
0.74 


5.29 
5.95 


0.94 
0.73 


1.38 
5.65 


0.52 
0.54 


5.72 
3.45 


1 67 


July 


0.58 


August. -, 


1.20 


0.50 


2.54 


0.49 


2.66 


0.68 


5.83 


1.48 


3.60 


0.52 


1.71 


0.53 




T.Ik 


1.76 


12. lU 


1.62 


11.59 


2.9k 


17.07 


3.15 


10.53 


■1.58 


9.88 


2.77 


September . . . 


5.21 


0.37 


1.49 


0.34 


6.61 


3.13 


^ 3. 43 


1.09 


3.69 


0.50 


0.75 


0.51 


October 


1.50 


0.38 


8.38 


1.14 


3.78 


0.93 


0.95 


0.67 


3.35 


0.51 


3.65 


0.53 


November ,.. 


3.40 


0.71 


8.16 


4.18 


4.36 


2.09 


2.49 


0.83 


3.97 


0.57 


4.50 


0.48 




10.11 


1.U6 


18.03 


5.66 


1U.75 


5.15 


6.87 


2.58 


8.91 


1.58 


8.90 
43.39 


1.51 


Total... 


39.89 


25.88 


46.86 


21.74 


46.93 


23.98 


50.56 


28.37 


40.39 


17.01 


19.36 




1882. 


1883. 


1884. 


1885. 


1886. 


1887. 


Month. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


December 


6.53 


1.73 


3.68 


1.29 


3.45 


0.64 


7.34 


3.78 


3.84 


2.09 


4.39 


1.19 


January 


4.41 


2.40 


2.80 


1.06 


5.07 


2.14 


5.59 


4.13 


5.24 


3.42 


5.68 


2.74 


February — 


5.96 


4.23 


5.21 


3.81 


6.31 


4.95 


4.66 


3.44 


5.20 


4.89 


6.01 


4.98 


March 


4.58 


4.74 


1.67 


3.03 


4.82 


5.01 


1.29 


3.05 


3.86 


2.50 


3.60 


8.69 


April 


1.36 


1.43 


3.94 


2.73 


2.96 


3.00 


3.09 


2.62 


3.61 


4.51 


3.47 


3.26 


May 


6.30 

29. lU 


2.20 
16.73 


2.86 
19.16 


1.38 
13.30 


4.38 

26. 9U 


1.91 

17.65 


3.44 

23. Ul 


1.58 
16.59 


4.54 

26.29 


2.15 

19.56 


0.33 

23.37 


1.30 




17.16 


June 


3.04 
3.63 


1.70 
0.69 


5.64 
4.26 


0.63 
0.52 


2.04 
6.54 


0.70 
0.81 


1.19 
5.27 


0.59 
0.52 


3.09 
4.40 


0.78 
0.61 


7.70 
13.33 


1.16 


July 


2.63 


August. 


3.93 


0.52 


2.09 


0.52 


4.50 


1.18 


7.35 


0.58 


3.21 


0.58 


7.06 


3.56 




10.59 


2.91 


11.99 


1.67 


13.08 


2.69 


13.81 


1.69 


10.71 


1.97 


28.08 


7.35 


September . . . 


14.33 


3.35 


2.45 


0.51 


1.69 


0.74 


1.09 


0.42 


2.30 


0.51 


2.00 


0.90 


October 


3.33 


3.27 


6.99 


0.66 


3.74 


0.57 


5.19 


0.55 


2.28 


0.52 


3.12 


1.03 


November ... 


1.66 


0.96 


1.79 


0.69 


4.37 


0.98 


5.99 


2.19 


5.57 


0.88 


2.69 


0.95 




19. S2 


6.U8 


11.23 


1.86 


9.80 


2.29 


12.27 


3.16 


10.15 


1.91 


7.81 


2.88 


Total... 


59.05 


26.12 


42.38 


16.83 


49.82 


22.63 


49.49 


31.44 


47.15 


28. U 


59.26 


27.39 



RAFTER.] DISCHARGE OF CROTON RIVER. 85 

Rainfall and rim-offof Crofon River drainage area from 1S70 to 1S06, etc. — Cont'd. 





1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


1892. 


1893. 


Month. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


December — 

January 

February 

March 

April 


6.71 
5.56 
5.07 
6.44 
3.68 
6.27 

3^.73 
2.00 
2.43 
6.87 

11.30 

10.77 
4.80 
4.49 

20.06 


2.48 
4.01 
4.95 
4.69 
4.85 
2.67 
23.65 
1.39 
0.67 
1.11 
3.17 
3.11 
2.58 
3.04 
8.73 


6.13 
5.14 
2.33 

1.86 
4.42 
3.22 

23.10 
4.51 
7.74 
2.90 

15.15 
6.13 
4.85 
8.45 

19. k3 


5.26 
4.41 
2.36 
2.10 

2.58 
1.76 
1S.U7 
1.43 
1.63 
4.03 
7.00 
2.27 
1.93 
5.29 
9.k9 


2.94 
2.03 
4.94 
5.66 
3.03 
5.74 

2k.3h. 
3.56 
5.46 
4.70 

13.72 
6.86 
7.63 
1.12 

15.61 


4.55 
2.34 
3.19 
4.72 
3.29 
2.73 
20.82 
1.53 
0.71 
0.59 
2.83 
2.04 
3.36 
2.09 
7.U9 


3.71 
9.76 
6.02 
3.36 
3.77 
1.36 

27.98 
1.81 
2.97 
5.61 

10.39 
1.87 
2.15 
3.86 
7. 88 


1.65 
6.84 
5.73 
4.37 
2.90 
0.89 
22.38 
0.63 
0.40 
0.31 
1.3U 
0.38 
0.41 
0.64 
1.U3 


5.65 
5.95 
1.22 
2.90 
1.08 
5.74 

22. 51^ 
3.84 
5.05 
6.12 

15.01 
2.65 
0.92 
7.85 

11. U2 


1.64 
5.07 
1.54 
2.10 
1.42 
1.62 
13.39 
1.15 
0.70 
0.90 
2.75 
0.51 
0.17 
1.58 
2.26 


1.11 
3.29 
4.60 
4.52 
3.55 
8.18 

25.25 
2.43 
2.38 
7.06 

11.87 
2.65 
6.42 
3.32 

12.39 


1.48 
1.70 
3.27 
7.21 
3.57 


May 


6.06 


June- 

Jialy 

August. 

September . . . 

October 

November . . . 


23.29 
0.96 

0.40 
0.72 
2. OS 
0.53 
1.17 
2.08 
3.78 


Total ... 


64.09 


35.55 


57.68 


35.05 


53.67 31.14 


46.25 


25.15 


48.97 


18.40 


49.51 


29.15 



Month. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


Mean. _ 


Rainfall. 


Run-off. Rainfall. 


Run-off. 


Rainfall. 


Run-off. 


Rainfall. 


Run-off. 


December 


5.34 
3.40 
5.01 
1.62 
3.07 
6.67 

25.11 
1.69 
1.75 
1.45 
U.89 
7.49 
5.94 
4.44 

17.87 


4 12 4 43 


2.57 
3.42 
1.04 

3.87 
4.22 
1.33 
16. k5 
0.49 
0.44 
0.62 
1. 55 
0.09 
0.40 
0.82 
1.31 


4.88 
1.52 
6.65 
8.20 
0.96 
3.09 

25.30 
3.79 
3.98 
4.56 

12.33 
6.50 
2.17 
3.96 

12. 63 


1.30 
2.06 
4.33 
7.90 
3.05 
0.87 
19.51 
0.97 
0.86 
0.76 
2.59 
0.65 
0.88 
1.73 
3.26 








1.77 
2.15 
5.21 
2.44 

1.88 
17.57 
1.48 
0.15 
0.71 
2.6!, 
0.57 
0.75 
3.37 
U.G9 


3.63 
3.34 

1.88 
5.63 
2.41 
21.32 
1.89 
3.95 
3.10 
8.91, 
1.16 
3.55 
2.91 
7.62 






February 






March 












May 






June . - 


23. kU 


18.00 


July. 






August 






September 


12.5k 


2.90 


October 






November 








12.12 


3.11, 


Total 


47.87 


24.90 


37.88 


19.31 


50.26 


25.36 


48.10 


24 65 







The run-off as given is stated by A. Fteley, chief engineer of new Croton aqueduct, to have 
been corrected as far as necessary for the storage, and accordingly represents approximately 
the natural run-off of the stream. 



86 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Evaporation from the Croton River ivatershed as given by differences between rain- 
fall and run-off in preceding table. 

[Indies on watershed.] 



Year. 



1870 

1871 
1873 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1883 
1883 
1884 



Decem- 
ber to 
May. 


June to 
August. 


Septem- 
ber to 
Novem- 
ber. 


Total. 


7.55 


8.74 


8.70 


34.99 


8.79 


13.03 


6.01 


37.83 


3.98 


10.86 


5.70 


19.54 


1.39 


6.91 


8.80 


17.10 


a 0.50 


9.06 


6.55 


15.11 


0.70 


9.48 


6.53 


16.71 


a 0.03 


5.38 


8.65 


14.01 


3.33 


10.53 


13.37 


25.13 


4.69 


8.65 


9.60 


33.94 


3.98 


13.93 


4.29 


33.19 


7.00 


8.95 


7.33 


33.38 


8.53 


7.11 


7.39 


33.03 


13.41 


7.68 


13.84 


33.93 


5.86 


10.33 


9.37 


35.55 


9.29 


L0.39 


7.51 


37.19 



Year. 



1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1893 

1893 

1894..... 

1895 

1896 

Mean 



Decem- 
ber to 
May. 



6.83 
6.73 
6.31 
9.08 
4.63 
3.53 
5.60 
9.15 
1.90 
7.54 
4.87 
5.79 



5.44 



June to 

August. 



13.13 

8.74 
30.73 

8.13 

8.06 
10.89 

9.05 
13.36 



9.64 



Septem- 
ber to 
Novem- 
ber. 



9.11 
8.34 
4.93 

11.33 
9.94 
8,13 
6.45 
9.16 
8.61 

is. 18 
6.31 
9.37 



Total. 



38.05 
33.71 
31.87 
38.54 
33.63 
32.53 
31. 10 
30.57 
20.36 
22.97 
18.57 
24.90 



23.^ 



a During tbis period the run-off exceeded rainfall. 

This stream is an exceedingly good water yielder. The minimum 
yield for a complete water year for the whole period from 1870 to 1896 
was in 1883, in which water year, from December to November, inclu- 
sive, the total run-off was 16.83 inches. 

The Croton w-atershed contains 31 lakes and ponds, manj^ of which 
have been utilized as natural storage basins by constructing dams at 
their outlets. The following tabulation gives the entire natural and 
artificial storage, either actually carried out or now under construction, 
in the Croton watershed : 



Storage capacity in the Croton icatershed. 

U. S. gallons. 

Boyds Corners reservoir 2,727,000,000 

Middle Branch reservoir 4,004,000,000 

LakeMahopaca. 575,000,000 

Lake Kirk a 565,000,000 

Lake Glenidaa 165,000,000 

Lake Gileada . 380,000,000 

Lake Waccabuc a 200,000,000 

Lake Tonnettaa 50,000,000 

Barretts Pond a 170,000,000 

China Ponda 105,000,000 

White Pond a 100,000,000 

Pine Ponda...... 75,000,000 

Long Ponda 60,000,000 

a The lakes and ponds marked thus are owned by the city. Those not marked are city 
reservoirs. 



BAFTEu.l FLOODS IN CHEMUNG RIVER. 87 

Storage capacity in the Croton icatershed — Continued. 

U. S. gallons. 

Peach Ponda 230,000,000 

Cross Pond a 110, 000, 000 

Haines Ponda 25,000,000 

East Branch reservoir 9,028,000,000 

Titticns reservoir 7,000,000,000 

Caramel reservoir 9, 000, 000, 000 

New Croton reservoir 32,000,000,000 

Amawalk reservoir : 7,000,000,000 

Total storage 73,569,000,000 

a The lakes and ponds marked tlius are owned by the city. Those not marked are city 
reservoirs. 

The drainage area above the uew Croton dam now constructing is 
360 square miles. It is considered by the Croton aqueduct officials 
that the storage afforded by this reservoir system will furnish a daily 
supply of at least 280,000,000 gallons. At this rate the utilization from 
this drainage area of 360 square miles Avill become 778,000 gallons per 
square mile per day, or 1.20 cubic feet per square mile per second. 

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS IN NEW YORK. 

The data relating to floods in Genesee River, given on pages 72 to 
74, as well as the following facts, may be taken as indicating some of 
the maximum flows of streams in New York. 

FLOODS IN CHEMUNG RIVER. 

Severe floods have occurred in this stream several times during the 
historical period, the most severe being the great flood of June, 1889, 
whicli caused serious damage to property at Elmira and Corning. 
Chemung River is formed by the junction of Tioga and Cohocton 
rivers at Painted Post, a few miles above Corning, the principal tribu- 
tary of the Tioga in this State being the Canisteo. Tioga River rises 
near Blossburg, in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, in an elevated region 
from 1,500 to 2,500 feet above tide. The descent from the extreme 
head, waters near the Fall Brook Coal Company's mines to Blossburg 
is at the rate of about 22 feet per mile, after which it descends at the 
rate of about 11 feet to the mile. The streams tributary to the Tioga 
are also very rapid; they flow mainly through deej), narrow rock val- 
lej^s, with their heads generally at an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet 
above tide. Recently the hill slopes have been largely denuded of 
timber, thus permitting a rai^id descent of the rainfall or melted snow. 
Hence it results that Tioga River not only naturally rises quickly, 
but its freshet flows have very high velocities. Canisteo River, join- 
ing the Tioga from the west, has an average slope of about 5.5 feet 
per mile. The slope of the Chemung from Painted Post to Elmira is 



88 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

at the rate of 5.9 feet per mile; thence through the city of Elmira for 
3 miles at the rate of 3.5 feet per mile; from Elmira to Chemung, 5.5 
feet per mile, and thence to Athens, where it joins the main East 
Branch of the Susquehanna, 3.4 feet per mile. Cohocton River is also 
a stream of comparatively low slope. 

The foregoing facts indicate that the floods will be slower in rising 
on Canisteo and Cohocton rivers than on the Tioga. In a general 
storm, where other conditions are equal, the first flood water to reach 
Corning and Elmira will come from the Tioga, to be followed later by 
large flows from the Canisteo and the Cohocton. The areas drained 
by these streams are approximatelj^ as follows : 

Areas drained by tributaries of Chemung River. 

Square miles. 

Tioga, aside from the Canisteo _. 750 

Canisteo 780 

Cohocton. , . . - 425 

Chemung above Elmira 100 

Total 2,055 

On May 31, 1889, the region tributarj^ to Chemung River above 
Elmira was visited by a phenomenally heavy rainfall, amounting in 
many i3laces to nearly 10 inches. The center of this downpour was 
located about 10 miles south and 15 miles west of Elmira. At Elmira 
the rainfall was not unusual, 1.5 inches being recorded from 8 p. m. 
of May 31 to 7 a. m. of June 1 ; but at Wel'lsboro, 36 miles south- 
westerly from Elmira, the total precipitation was 9.8 inches, of which 
7.45 inches occurred after 9 i3. m. of May 31 and before 7 a. m. of 
June 1. At South Canisteo, 45 miles westerlj^ from Elmira, a total 
fall of 6.25 inches Avas recorded, of which 4.5 inches fell between mid- 
night and 3 a. m. of June 1. Farther up the valley 6 inches were 
measured between the same hours. At Painted Post a total fall of 
about 8 inches was reported. At Savonia, on the Cohocton, 5 inches 
fell, but the fall grew gradually less to the north. At a number of 
points to the south and southwest rainfalls of from 6 to 8 inches were 
recorded for May 31, heavy rains occurring as far south as Virginia. 

It will be noticed from the preceding statement of the rainfall of 
May 31 and June 1, 1889, that the heaviest precipitation was practi- 
cally at the same time over the entire watershed. The following 
indicates the heights of the flood wave at several points : At Tioga 
the river was highest about 6.30 a. m. on June 1; Canisteo River was 
at its highest a little before noon of June 1 ; at Painted Post the local 
creeks reached their highest points at 5 a. m., and the Tioga began to 
rise rapidly about the same time; the Chemung reached a height at 
this place of 18 feet above low water; at Elmira the river began to rise 
rapidly about 9 a. m. of June 1 and was at its highest at about 7 p. m. 



RAFTER] FLOODS IN CHEMUNG RIVER. 89 

According to Francis Collinf^ood,^ who investigated the Chemung 
River flood of 1889, for the city of Elinira, the foregoing data indicate 
that in a flood coming more from the south than from tlie west the 
highest water in Chemung River may be looked for about twelve 
hours after the highest water has passed the Tioga, and at a some- 
what later period when the water comes more from the Canisteo and 
Cohocton rivers. Mr. Collingwood concludes that the flood flow at 
Elmira will usually be not less than fourteen hours after a heavj^ rain 
on the head waters of these streams. 

The survej^s made by Mr. Collingwood, in which a considerable 
number of flood elevations were fixed and plotted, show that the dis- 
charge of Chemung River at its maximum was about 138,000 cubic 
feet per second, and the mean velocity 12.72 feet per second. A 
maximum of 138,000 cubic feet per second, gives 67.1 cubic feet per 
second per square mile. By the way of comparison, it may be noted 
that a maximum has been recorded on the Croton watershed of 74.87 
cubic feet per second per square mile; also that Genesee River at 
Mount Morris gave in the flood of 1894 the maximum discharge of 
42,000 cubic feet per second, or 48.6 cubic feet per second per square 
mile. 

The Chemung flood of 1889 did considerable damage both at Corn- 
ing and at Elmira, and the investigations of Mr. Collingwood were 
with reference to plans for protecting the latter city from devastation 
by future floods. Several plans were proposed, all including the rec- 
tification, clearing, and lowering of the river through the city with 
such dikes at the side as might be necessary for special protection at 
exposed points. The estimated cost of these various projects varied 
from 8336,000 to 1700,000. So far as known, nothing in the way of 
constructing the work at Elmira has yet been done. 

The city of Corning, which is situated on the banks of Chemung 
River a few miles above Elmira, was also greatly damaged by the flood 
of June, 1889. In consequence, it was determined to construct pro- 
tective works, and an act of the legislature was accordingly passed in 
1892, creating a board of river commissioners, with authority to issue 
bonds for this purpose, under which enactment and amendments 
thereto bonds to the amount of $150,000 have been issued. The work 
began in June, 1896, and is now about comjpleted. The plan adopted 
is to construct earthen dikes to confine the river at all points where 
it ig subject to overflow. The total length of the dikes is about 25,800 
feet, or 4.9 miles, and they vary in height from 4 to 19 feet. The river 
dikes were generally 8 feet wide on top, with a slope of from 3 to 1 (3 
horizontal to 1 vertical) on the river side, and a slope of 2 to 1 on the 
land side. 

Whatever the purpose for which an inland stream is to be utilized, 

1 Report on the Prevention of Floods at Elmira. 



90 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

the- first question asked by an experienced engineer is with regard to 
the minimum flow. If for power development, the minimum flow 
will determine the amount of power which can be insured on a given 
head; If for the water supply of a town, the minimum flow will indi- 
cate at once the number of people which may be supplied without 
storage. From every point of view, therefore, a knowledge of the 
minimum flow is a matter of the first importance. Below are given 
the minimum fiows of the inland streams of the State of New York so 
far as information is at hand. 

LOW-WATER FLOW OP OATKA CREEK. 

The drainage area of this stream above the point of measurement 
is 27.5 square miles. The mean flow for the month of August, 1891, 
was 6 cubic feet per second; for September, 5.83 cubic feet per second; 
for October, 5.8 cubic feet per second. Expressed in cubic feet per 
second per square mile, the foregoing results are 0.218 cubic foot 
for August, 0.212 cubic foot for September, and 0.211 cubic foot for 
October. Expressed in inches on the watershed, the run-ofl: of this 
stream for August to October, 1891, was from 0.24 to 0.25 inch per 
month. For several days during the months of August to October, 
1891, the flow of Oatka Creek was down to about 4.2 cubic feet per 
second, or to about 0.151 cubic foot per square mile per second. On 
September 26, 1891, the recorded mean flow for the the day was 3.77 
cubic feet per second, or 0.137 cubic foot per square mile per second. 

As a general proposition, statements of minimum flows of streams 
ought not to be based on the record of single days, especially on streams 
where there are mill ponds above the point of measurement, because 
such accidental circumstances as the holding back of the water may 
vitiate the result; from this point of view an average extending over 
as long a period as possible should be taken. 

The measurements of Oatka Creek from August to October, 1891, 
illustrate well the nearly universal tendency of streams to run either 
at approximately a fixed rate or to decrease only very slowly after 
the tributary ground water has become well drawn down. For sev- 
eral days at a time the records show only slight variations. 

LOW- WATER FLOW OF GENESEE RIVER. 

The drainage area above Mount Morris, the first point of measure- 
ment, is 1,070 square miles; above Rochester, the second point, 2,365 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATFH-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. 




A. ERIE CANAL AQUEDUCT AND SOUTH SIDE OF MAIN STREET BRIDGE, ROCHESTER 




B. GREAT FLOOD OF 1865 AT ROCHESTER, SHOWING LUMBER LODGED AGAINST 
AQUEDUCT BRIDGE 



LOW-WATER FLOW OF GENESEE KIVER. 



91 



square miles. The following table gives the mean monthly flows ;it 
Mount Morris and Rochester for several low months of the year 1805: 

3Iean monthly flow of Genesee River at Mount Morris and Rochester. 



Month. 



Ma3^ 

Juae 

July 

August -. 
September 
October . . 



Mount Morris. 



Mean flow 
(cubic fee; 
per sec- 
ond). 



174 
128 
105 
115 
100 
101 



Cubic feet 

per second 

per square 

mile. 



0.163 
0.119 
0.099 
0.108 
0.093 
0.097 



Inches on 

the water 

shed. 



0.19 
0.13 
0.11 
0.13 
0.10 
0.11 



Rochester. 



Mean flow 
(cubic feet 
per sec- 
ond.) 



385 
283 
232 
254 
221 
230 



Cubic feet 

per second 

per square 

mile. 



0.380 
0.226 
0.165 
0.169 
0. 106 
0.093 



Comparing the foregoing figures for Mount Morris with those for 
Rochester for the month of October, 1895, it is seen that the j)ropor- 
tion of run-off at Rochester w^as somewhat less for that month than 
at Mount Morris, although for the previous months it appears to have 
been larger. The explanation of this is that there are between 
Rochester, Mount Morris, and Dansville extensive flats aggregating 
from 60 to 80 square miles. The temporary ground-water storage of 
these flats acts to sustain a somewhat more equable flow at Rochester 
than at Mount Morris, above which point there are proportionately 
much smaller areas of flats. 

The foregoing minimum flows of Genesee River show conclusively 
that in its present condition it is not a good mill stream. The great 
variations in run-off are conclusive on this point. The figures show 
that the run-off of the stream may be exceedingly slack during the 
summer and fall months. 

In the summer of 1846 Daniel Marsh made a series of measure- 
ments in order to determine the low-water flow of that j^ear. As the 
result of 9 measurements made at various times in July and August 
he placed the minimum flow at Rochester in 1846 at 412 cubic feet 
per second. 

If we examine the meteorological records of western New York for 
the years 1844 to 1846, we find that the period covered was one of low 
rainfall. For instance, at Rochester the rainfall for the storage period 
of the year 1846 (from December, 1845, to May, 1846, inclusive) was 
only 11.57 inches; the rainfall of the growing period, 11 30 inches; 
for the replenishing period, 13.16 inches; the total for the water year 
1846'being 36.03 inches. For 1845 the total was 34.66 inches. For 1844 
the storage period rainfall was 10.52 inches; growing period, 8.23 
inches; replenishing period, 7.68 inches; total for the year, 26.43 inches. 



92 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

At Middlebuiy Academy, Wyoming County, in the drainage area 
of Oatka Oreek, the rainfall for the water year 1845 was, for the stor- 
age period, 12.59 inches; growing period, 4.82 inches; replenishing 
period, 8.60 inches; total for the year, 26.01 inches. The record for 
the year 1846 at Middleburj' is not given. It is clear, therefore, so 
far as we have any definite meteorological record, that the measure- 
ments made by Mr. Marsh in 1846 were at a time of very low water. 

The foregoing statements indicate that apparently the minimum 
summer flow of Genesee River has decreased from 462 cubic feet per 
second in 1846 to about 220 cubic feet per second in 1895. As to the 
reason for this decrease it is believed that the extensive deforestation 
of the drainage area which has taken place since 1846 offers full 
explanation. In 1846 the upper Genesee drainage area was still very 
largely in forest. Probably of the entire area above Rochester the 
virgin forest was from 65 to 70 per cent of the whole. We have, 
therefore, apparently a marked case where the deforestation of a 
large area has materially reduced the minimum run-off. 

LOW-WATER FLOW OF HEMLOCK LAKE. 

According to a report made by Henry Tracy, the minimum flow of 
Hemlock Lake (drainage area 43 square miles) is 5 cubic feet per 
second, or 0.116 cubic foot per square mile per second.^ 

The table on pages 76 and 77 gives, as previously stated, the quan- 
tity of water passing out of Hemlock Lake for the period covered and 
without reference to the natural flow. In order to obtain the approxi- 
mate natural flow for the year we must take into account the mean 
elevations of lake surface. Thus, for the water year 1880 the mean 
elevation of the first month, December, was — 1.67, while for the last 
month, November, it was ■ — 1.24. The difference (0.43 foot) repre- 
sents the gain in depth of storage for the year. Computing for the 
value of this storage in inches on the drainage basin, we have 0.28 
inch, which, added to the quantity of water passing out of the lake 
(3.07 inches), gives as the approximate total run-off for the year 3.35 
inches. Since 1880 was a very dry year, we may compute the flow for 
the entire water jesir to be 10.3 cubic feet per second, which again 
amounts to 0.24 cubic foot per square' mile per second. So far as 
known this is the lowest annual run-off thus far measured in the 
State of New York. 

For the five-year period included in this table, the total rainfall 
and run-off are as follows : 

1 Report on the cost and policy of constructing reservoirs of Conesus, Hemlock, Honeoye, and 
Canadice lakes. Senate Document No. 40, 1850. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL 




UPPER FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT PORTAGE. 



RAFTER.] 



LOW-WATER FLOW OF MORRIS RUN. 
Rainfall and run-off of Hemlock Lake. 



93 



Water year. 


Rainfall. 


Run-off. 


1880 


Inches. 
21.99 
24.27 
25.46 
32.24 
26.74 


Inches. 

3.07 

8. 38 
14.51 

9.29 
12.57 

0.40 


1881 - -- --- 


1882 


1883 


1884 . 


Add for rise in level 


Total 




131.70 


48.22 



For the five-year period the total run-off was therefore only 36.6 
per cent of the rainfall. In 1880 the run-off was only 15.2 per cent of 
the rainfall. 

LOW-WATER FLOW OF MORRIS RUN. 

The result of a measurement of Morris Run, a tributary of Oatka 
Creek, the source of a part of the water supply of the village of 
Warsaw, Wyoming County, made from July 4 to December 26, 
1894, is shown by the accompanying table. The measured drainage 
area is 156 acres, but it may, by reason of the peculiar topography, be 
somewhat greater than this. The water issues along the thread of 
the short valley in the form of springs. The measurement was made 
by a thin-edged notched weir at a point just below the lowest spriug. 
As may be observed, the flow varied greatly at different times, the 
minimum being 77,630 gallons per day or 7.2 cubic feet per minute, in 
October. On July 8 the discharge was 238,580 gallons, or 22.1 cubic 
feet per minute for twenty-four hours. There is a popular impres- 
sion that springs do not vary their flow at different seasons. The 
measurements of Morris Run are valuable, therefore, as illustrating 
that even a spring-fed stream will gradually decrease during a dry 
season. 

Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris Run near Warsaw, New 

York, in 1894. 



Day. 


July. 


August. 


September. 


October. 


November. 


December. 


1 




16.0 
17.3 
16.7 
18.3 


10.4 




10.9 




2 --- 








3 




8.3 
8.0 

7.8 






10.0 


4.._ 


19.4 
17.8 
19.5 
20.9 


7.8 
8.2 




5 






6 


16.2 
14.9 


9.4 




7 




6.7 











94 



WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 



Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris Run near Warsaw, New 

York, in 75.94— Continued. 



Day. 


July. 


August. 


September. 


October. 


November. 


December. 


8 

9.. 

10... 


22.1 
21.2 
21.3 
































11 


20.8 
20.6 
19.7 
20.1 
19.7 
19.3 
18.7 
18. 3 
17.5 






9.4 

7.8 




21.9 


12 

13 














16.2 


14 

15 

16.-.. 

17.... 














8.8 

7.8 
7.8 
7.2 




14.9 




8.8 

8.2 

19.0 


8.2 




18 

19.. 

20 

21 

22 . . . 

23 

24 .. 

25 

2fj 




13.4 


8.2 


17.9 
21.2 
20. G 
20.0 
20.4 
18.7 
17.8 
17.3 
17.1 
17.8 
16.3 
16. 5 






13.6 




11.1 

8.8 


7.2 


8.2 
8.8 






7.2 
53.8 




8.8 


8.2 


13.6 






8.8 
7.8 


8.2 


13.6 


27 ... 






28 - 

29.... 

^30 

'31 




8.8 
8.8 








7.2 

7.2 

19.0 










11.7 















LOW- WATER FLOW OF WEST BRANCH OF CANADAWAY CREEK. 



In the summer of 1883 measurements were made of the West 
Branch of Canadaway Creek in Chautauqua County, from 3\x\y 18 to 
September 2 of that year. This stream, which is the source of the 
water suppl}^ of the village of Fredonia, has a drainage area above 
the point of measurement of 4.3 square miles. The valley is deep cut 
for a distance of 3 miles from the measuring point to its extreme 
headwaters. Small springs issue frequently throughout the valley. 
On July 18, 1883, the stream was flowing at the rate of 541,620 gal- 
lons in 24 hours, or 50.2 cubic feet per second, and very gradually 
decreased to 270,000 gallons, or 25 cubic feet per minute, on July 22. 
Rains between July 22 and July 29 brought the stream up to a dis- 
charge of 1,310,000 gallons per day, or 122.1 cubic feet per minute, 
on the latter date. The flow then gradually decreased during the 
month of August until, on August 26, it was only 216,000 gallons per 



RAFTEK] WEST BRANCH OF CANADAWAY CREEK. 95 

(lay, or 20 eubic feet per iniiiiite, which was the lowest point reached 
during the summer of 18S;j. 

This stream can not be considered a good water j-ielder. A mean 
discharge of 210,000 gallons in twenty-four hours fi'om a drainage 
area of 4.3 square miles represents a yield of 0.;];34 cubic foot per 
second, or, what is the same thing, 0.078 cubic foot per square mile 
per second. It is apparent, therefore, that even a spring-fed stream 
with a deep Aalley in Chautauqua Oountj^ ma}^ at times furnish a 
veiy small outflow, though it should not be overlooked that the flow 
of 0.078 cubic foot per square mile per second was the extreme mini- 
mum for one day only. The relations of this extreme minimum 
to the daily flows during the period covered by the measurements 
may be easily gathered from an inspection of the table. The gradual 
falling in water yield from August 1 to 26 is the most interesting fact 
revealed b}' these measurements. 

The following Avas the rainfall at the point of measurements during 
the month of August, 1883: 

Inches. 

August 3 0. 04 

August 13 .-0.10 

August 20 0. 05 

August 23 ...0.05 

August 28 1.98 

Daily mean discJiarge in cubic feet per minute of West Branch of Canadaicay Creek, 
near Fredonia, New York. 

[Drainage area, 4.3 square miles.] 



Day. . 

1 


July. 


August. 


Septem- 


Day. 


July. 


August. 


Septem- 


1 




56.5 
50.3 
46.2 
45.4 
39.8 
36.9 
36.0 
34.1 
34.1 
33.2 
31.7 
30.2 
30.2 
32.4 
27.0 
27.9 


47.6 
45.0 





18 ... 


50. 2 
49.3 
«.7 
44.0 
25.0 


31.7 
28.4 
29. 3 
31.7 
33.2 
22.9 
25.6 





2 




3 




19 

20 

21... 

22... 

23 


1 4 . . 




5 




\ 6.. 

1 i 





8 




24 




! 9 




25 




22.1 
. 20.0 

21.3 
105.1 
321.9 
10.. 7 

60.0 




10 

11 




26...- 




27 ... 




12 




. 


28 




13.. 

1 14 

1 15 . 




29 

30. ........ 

' 31 


122.1 
62.4 


16 




1 
1 







96 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I, [no. 24. 

LOW- WATER FLOW OF SKANEATELES LAKE. 

So far as can be learned, no definite statements of the minimum flow 
from this drainage basin, having an area of 73 square miles, have 
ever been made. Before the taking of the waters of this lake for the 
supply of the city of Syracuse the supply was ample for the canal, 
and close estimates were not made. For the run-off of a water year 
we find by the table on page 78 that 1897 was the lowest thus far 
measured, the total of that year being 15.61 inches on the watershed. 
The indications of the table, so far as they go, are that the Skaneat- 
eles area is a good water yielder. Nevertheless, it is improbable that 
1897 was a year of minimum flow. 

LOW-WATER FLOW OF OSWEGO RIVER. 

There are no records of any long-continued measurements of the 
discharge of Oswego River, whose drainage area at the mouth is 5,013 
square miles. The minimum flow of this stream has been the subject 
of judicial inquiry. In August, 1875, in the case of Michael J. Cum- 
mings against owners and lessees of the water of the Varick Canal at 
Oswego, it was decreed: 

(1) That the average flow of water from the Oswego River into the Varick 
Canal in low water in the summer months is about 45,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per 
minute; (2) that in extreme low water in the summer, and which usually occurs 
in the month of July or August, it is about 35,000 cubic feet per minute; (3) that 
the average flow of the whole three summer months is about 75,000 cubic feet per 
minute. 

Varick Canal is entitled to receive one-half the total flow of the 
river, less the amount of water required for navigation purposes. 
Hence the average summer flow, according to the decree, is from 
90,000 to 100,000 cubic feet per minute (1,500 to 1,670 cubic feet per 
second). The extreme low- water flow is placed at 70,000 cubic feet 
per minute for the whole flow of the river, or at 1,170 cubic feet per 
second, while the average flow of the whole three summer months is 
given at about 150,000 cubic feet per minute, or 2,500 cubic feet per 
second. From the foregoing figures we deduce an extreme minimum 
of perhaps 0.23 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, with an 
average of low water in the summer months of about 0.30 to 0.33 of a 
cubic foot per square mile per second. 

LOW- WATER FLOW OF BLACK RIVER. 

The drainage area of this stream at Watertown is 1,820 square miles. 
There is very little definite information as to either the maximum or 
the minimum fiow. Aside from a few measurements made by engineers 
in the employ of the State at the time of construction of Black River 
Canal and a few made by Frank A. Hines in 1875, there do not appear 
to be any measurements of flow. As stated in the Report on Water 
Power of the United States, Tenth Census, probably the minimum flow 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. XIM 




HIGH FALuS OF MOHAWK RIVER AT TIME OF LOW WATER. 



RAFTER.] LOW-WATEK FLOW OF HUDSON RIVER. 97 

in an ordinarity dry season may "be taken at from 1,000 to 1,100 cubic 
feet per second for 24 hours. By reasoning from the data of Hudson 
River, it may be assumed that in very dry years the minimum flow will 
be less than this. Taking into account the large surface storage on 
the numerous lakes at the head waters, it is doubtful if Black River 
in its natural state will, while present forestry conditions are main- 
tained, ever go below about 0.4 of a cubic foot per square mile per 
second, although it is claimed to have been less than this in 1849. As 
is shown in detail in another place, there are a large number of reser- 
voirs upon the upper waters of this stream, which, if properly operated, 
may be expected to keep the low- water flow at a considerably higher 
figure than 0.4 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, that figure 
relating to the natural flow of the stream only. 

LOW- WATER FLOW OF MOHAWK RIVER. 

The drainage area of this stream is 3,400 square miles. According 
to David H. Van Auken, the engineer of The Cohoes Company, at 
Cohoes, the minimum flow of Mohawk River does not exceed 800 cubic 
feet per second, or 0.235 cubic foot per square mile per second. Since 
considerable water is taken from Mohawk River for the supply of 
Erie Canal, probably Mr. Yan Auken's statement relates to the amount 
realized for water power at Cohoes, and, in the absence of definite 
figures as to the amount abstracted for the canal, must be taken as 
somewhat general. There is, however, a well-defined feeling that the 
minimum flow of the Mohawk has been gradually decreasing during 
the last twenty or twenty-five years, due probably to decreasing 
deforestation of the drainage area. 

LOW"- WATER FLOW OF HUDSON RIVER. 

The drainage area above Mechanicville is 4,500 square miles. 
Measurements have been made at Mechanicville since October, 1887, 
the record of which to November, 1896, is presented in the tables 
on page 82. The natural flow of this stream is somewhat obscured 
by the presence of a considerable number of lumbermen's reservoirs 
on its head waters, the total storage of which aggregates about 
4,000,000,000 cubic feet. The month of minimum run-off for the 
whole period covered by the measurements was July, 1888, the mean 
for the month being 1,537 cubic feet per second, or 0.39 inch on the 
watershed. For short periods the mean flow has been less than this. 
Thus, from August 14 to 19, 1890, the mean flow was 1,080 cubic feet 
per second; also, from October 2 to 6, 1891, inclusive, the mean flow 
is given at 1,080 cubic feet per second. For 4,500 square miles 
drainage area this gives 0.24 cubic foot per second. Taking the 
diversion for the supply of Champlain Canal into account, we have 
about 0.29 cubic foot per square mile per second as the actually 
observed minimum flow. 
IRR 24 7 



98 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [no. 24. 

The figures show, moreover, that the minimum of 0.29 of a cubic 
foot per second has occurred for only two periods, one of six days and 
the other of five days, a total of eleven days for the whole period cov- 
ered by the measurements. For July, 1888, the mean flow, including 
the diversion which was then occurring for the supply of Champlain 
Canal, may be taken at 0.37 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 
For October, 1891, the mean flow for the whole month was 1,472 cubic 
feet per second, or, including the diversion to the Champlain Canal, 
0.36 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. In Julj^ 1890, the 
mean flow for the month was 1,950 cubic feet per second, and in sev- 
eral other months, as July, 1893, July, 1895, and September and Octo- 
ber, 1895, the mean monthly flow varied from about 2,600 to 2,700 
cubic feet per second. Hence we may say that for any business where 
it is not absolutely indispensable to have permanent power, water 
power on Hudson River may be developed up to the limit of about 0.4 
of a cubic foot per square mile per second, with a prospect of not being 
interrupted on account of low water more than a few days in each 
year. For electric power, however, or any application of water power 
requiring a permanent power every day in the year, the development 
ought not to be based, under present conditions, on more than about 
0.24 to 0.25 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, these latter 
figures relating especially to that portion of the river from which 
water is diverted for the supply of Champlain Canal. At points above 
the Glens Falls feeder the indications of the available data are that 
permanent power developments may be made up to 0.3 of a cubic 
foot per square mile per second. As is shown in the section on the 
water power of Hudson River, nearly all of the plants on that stream 
are developed far beyond these figures. 

LOW- WATER FLOW OF CROTON RIVER. 

The drainage area above the point of measurement is 338 square 
miles. The minimum flow of the main Croton River above the point 
of measurement, as given by J. J. R. Croes, is 0.178 of a cubic foot 
per square mile per second. The minimum flow of West Branch of 
Croton River, with a drainage area of 20.4 square miles, is given at 
0.02 cubic foot per square mile per second. The lowest mean monthly 
flow in the period from 1870 to 1896, covered by the table on pages 83 
to 85, is for the month of September, 1870, in which month the aver- 
age daily run-off was 69,401,200 gallons or 9,265,800 cubic feet in 24 
hours. These figures give 7.5 cubic feet per second and 0.318 of a 
cubic foot per square mile per second. 

SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE OF LOW- WATER FLOW. 

Summarizing the present knowledge of the minimum flow of streams 
in New York, we may say that in western New York for streams like 
Genesee River, issuing from regions of heavy, compact soil, mostly 



SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE OF LOW-WATER FLOW. 99 

deforested, the minimum flows are likely to run as low as 0.1 of a 
cubic foot per square mile per second, and even less. Spring-fed 
streams in that region, and those with considerable lake-surface pond- 
age, may be expected to be somewhat greater than this. For the 
central part of the State the information is too limited to permit of 
making other than general statements. It is probable, however, that 
Oswego River, the main stream of the central region, has by reason 
of its lake pondage and swamp area a minimum flow not much less 
than 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. The Mohawk 
and the upper Hudson may also be placed, while their present condi- 
tion of forestation is maintained, at a minimum of about 0.3 of a cubic 
foot per square mile per second. This figure also appears to apply to 
the Croton drainage area, where there are considerable sand areas, 
which compensate for the limited forestation. The streams of Long 
Island issuing from sand plains will give larger yields, the measure- 
ments showing a run-off of 0.58 cubic foot per second per square mile 
drained. The streams of the northern part of the State, which issue 
from denser forests than the others, ma}" be ex^Dected to give minimum 
yields somewhat in excess of 0. 3 of a cubic foot per square mile per 
second. Little is known as to the yield of streams tributary to the 
Allegheny, Susquehanna, and Delaware rivers aside from the measure- 
ments of Eaton and Madison ])rooks by Mr. Jervis, in 1835. Appar- 
ently no measurements of anj' other of these streams have been made. 
It is probable, however, that many of them are not specially differ- 
ent in water-yielding capacity from the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and 
Perkiomen creeks in Pennsylvania.^ 

In view of the vast importance of a detailed knowledge of stream 
flow in the State of New York, on account not only of the canal inter- 
ests of the last seventy-five years, but also on account of the great 
possibilities of water-power developments, it is a matter of surprise 
that more extended measurements of the inland streams have not 
been made. 

^ For details of the measurements of the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and Perkiomen creeks, see a 
paper, Observations on rainfall and stream flow in eastern Pennsylvania, by John E. Codman. 
Proc. Eng. Club of Philadelphia, Vol. XIV (July to September, 1897). 

[For index, see Part II of this report — Water-Supply Paper No. 25.] 

O • 



Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1894-95, Part II, 
Papers of an economic character, 1895; octavo, 598 pp. 

Contains a paper on the public lands and their water supply, by P. H. Newell, illustrated 
by a large map showing the relative extent and location of the vacant public lands; also a 
report on the water resources of a portion of the Great Plains, by Robert Hay. 

A geological reconnoissance of northwestern Wyoming, by George H. Eldridge, 
1894; octavo, 73 pp. Bulletin No. 119 of the United States Geological Survey; 
price, 10 cents. 

Contains a description of the geologic structure of portions of the Bighorn Range and 
Bighorn Basin, especially with reference to the coal fields, and remarks upon the water 
supply and agricultural possibilities. 

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar years 1893 and 
1894, by F. H. Newell, 1895; octavo, 176 pp. Bulletin No. 131 of the United 
States Geological Survey; price, 15 cents. 

Contains results of stream measurements at various points, mainly within the arid region, 
and records of wells in a number of counties in western Nebraska, western Kansas, and 
eastern Colorado. 

1896. 

Seventeenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1895-96, Part 
II, Economic geology and hydrography, 1896; octavo, 864 pp. 

Contains papers on "The underground water of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colo- 
rado," by G. K. Gilbert; " The water resources of Illinois," by Frank Leverett; and "Pre- 
liminary report on the artesian areas of a portion of the Dakotas," by N. H. Darton. 

Artesian -well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton, 
1896; octavo, 230 pp., 19 plates. Bulletin No. 138 of the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey; price, 20 cents. 

Gives a description of the geologic conditions of the coastal region from Long Island, 
N. Y., to Georgia, and contains data relating to many of the deep wells. 

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar year 1895, by 
F. H. i^ewell, hydrographer in charge, 1896; octavo, 356 pp. Bulletin No. 140 
of the United States Geological Survey; price, 25 cents. ~ 

Contains a description of the instruments and methods employed in measuring streams 
and the results of hydrographic investigations in various parts of the United States. 

1897. 

Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1896-97, Part 
IV, Hydrography, 1897; octavo, 756 pp. 

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the year 1896," by Arthur 
P. Davis; " The water resources of Indiana and Ohio," by Frank Leverett; "New devel- 
opments in well boring and irrigation in South Dakota," by N. H. Darton; and "Reser- 
voirs for irrigation," by J. D. Schuyler. 

1898. 

Nineteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1897-98, Part 
IV, Hydrography, 1899; octavo, 814 pp. 

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1897," 
by F. H. Newell and others; "The rock waters of Ohio," by Edward Orton; and "Pre- 
liminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred 
and third meridian," by N. H, Darton. 

Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, 1896-1899. 

This series of papers is designed to present in pamphlet form the results of stream meas- 
urements and of special investigations. A list of these, with other information, is given on 
the outside (or fourth) page of this cover. 

Survey bulletins can be obtained only by prepayment of cost, as noted above. 
Postage stamps, checks, and drafts can not be accepted. Money should be trans- 
mitted by postal money order or express order, made payable to the Director of 
the United States Geological Survey. Correspondence relating to the publications 
of the Survey should be addressed to The Director, United States Geological 
Survey, Washington, D. C. 
IRR 24 






WATER-SUPPIiY AXD IRRIGATIOIS^ PAPERS. 

1. Pumping water for irrigation, by Herbert M. Wilson, 1896. 

2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Arizona, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897. 

3. Sewage irrigation, by George W. Rafter, 1897. 

4. A reconnoissance in southeastern Washington, by Israel C. Russell, 1897. 

5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill, 1897. 

6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth, 1897. 

7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier, 1897. 

8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy, 1897. 

9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colorado, by David Boyd, 1897. 

10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker, 1898. 

11. River heights for 1896, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897. 

12. Water resources of southeastern Nebraska, by Nelson Horatio Darton, 1898. 

13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by William Ferguson Hutson, 1898. 

14. New tests of pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood, 1898. 

15. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part I, 1898. 

16. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part II, 1898. 

17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898. 

18. Irrigation near Fresno, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898. 

19. Irrigation near Merced, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1899. 

20. Experiments with v^ndmills, by Thomas O. Perry, 1899. 

21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett, 1899. 

22. Sewage irrigation, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899. 

23. Water-right problems in the Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead, 1899. 

24. Water resources of the State of New York, Part I, by George W. Rafter, 1899. 
In addition to the above, there are in various stages of preparation other papers 

relating to the measurement of streams, the storage of water, the amount available 
from underground sources, the efficiency of windmills, the cost of pumping, and 
other details relating to the methods of utilizing the water resources of the coun- 
try. Provision has been made for printing these by the following clause in the 
sundry civil act making appropriations for the year 1896-97: 

Provided, That hereafter the reports of the Geological Survey in relation to the 
gauging of streams and to the methods of utilizing the water resources may be 
printed in octavo form, not to exceed 100 pages in length and 5,000 copies in num- 
ber; 1,000 copies of which shall be for the official use of the Geological Survey, 
1,500 copies shall be delivered to the Senate, and 2,500 copies shall be delivered to 
the House of Representatives, for distribution. [Approved June 11, 1896; Stat, L. , 
vol. 29, p. 453.] 

The maximum number of copies available for the use of the Geological Survey 
is 1,000. This number falls far short of the demand, so that it is impossible to 
meets all requests. Attempts are made to send these pamphlets to persons who 
have rendered assistance in their preparation through replies to schedules or 
donation of data. Requests specifying a certain paper and stating a reason for 
asking for it are attended to whenever practicable, but it is impossible to comply 
with general requests, such as to have all of the series sent indiscriminately. 
Application for these papers should be made either to members of Congress or to 
The Director, 

United States Geological Survey, 

Washington, D. C. 
irr 24 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEKIOR 



WATER-SUPPLY 



lEEIGATION PAPEES 



UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



^"0. 25 



WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE 01 -JEW YORK 
PART II.— Rapter 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1899 




IRRIGATION REPORTS. 

The following list contains the titles and brief descriptions of the principal reports 

relating to water supply and irrigation, prepared by the United States Geological 

Survey since 1890: 

1890. 

First Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1890; octavo, 123 pp. 

Printed as Part II, Irrigation, of the Tenth Annual Report of the United States Q-eolog- 
ical Survey, 1888-89. Contains a statement of the origin of the Irrigation Survey, a pre- 
liminary report on the organization and prosecution of the survey of the arid lands for 
purposes of irrigation, and report of work done during 1890. 

iS91. 

Second Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 395 pp. 

Published as Part II, Irrigation, of the Eleventh Annual Report of the United States 
Geological Survey, 1889-90. Contains a description of the hydrography of the arid region 
and of the engineering operations carried on by the Irrigation Survey during 1890; also 
the statement of the Director of the Survey to the House Committee on Irrigation, and 
other papers, including a bibliography of irrigation literature. Illustrated by 39 plates and 
4 figures. 

Third Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891 ; octavo, 576 pp. 

Printed as Part II of the Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Sur- 
vey, 1890-91. Contains " Report upon the location and survey of reservoir sites during the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1891," by A. H. Thoropson; "Hydrography of the arid regions," 
by F. H. Newell; and " Irrigation in India," by Herbert M. Wilson. Illustrated by 93 plates 
md 190 figures. 

Bulletins of the Eleventh Census of the United States upon irrigation, prepared 
by F. H. Newell; quarto. 

No. 35, Irrigation in Arizona; No. 60, Irrigation in New Mexico; No. 85, 
Irrigation in Utah; No. 107, Irrigation in Wyoming; No. 153, Irrigation in 
Montana; No. 157, Irrigation in Idaho; No. 163, Irrigation in Nevada; No. 
178, Irrigation in Oregon; No. 193, Artesian wells for irrigation; No. 198, 
Irrigation in Washington. 

1893. 

Irrigation of western United States, by F. H. Newell; extra census bulletin No, 
23, September 9, 1892; quarto, 22 pp. 

Contains tabulations showing the total number, average size, etc., of irrigated holdings, 
the total area and average size of irrigated farms in the subhumid regions, the percentage 
of number of farms irrigated, character of crops, value of irrigated lands, the average cost 
of irrigation, the investment and profits, together with a resume of the water supply and 
a description of irrigation by artesian wells. Illustrated by colored maps showing the 
location and relative extent of the irrigated areas. 

1893. 

Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92, Part 
III, Irrigation, 1893; octavo, 486 pp. 

Consists of three papers: "Water supply for irrigation," by F. H. Newell; "American 
irrigation engineering " and "Engineermg results of the Irrigation Survey," by Herbert 
M. Wilson; and " Construction of topographic maps and selection and survey of reservoir 
sites," by A. H, Thompson. Illustrated by 77 plates and 119 figures. 

A geological reconnoissance in central Washington, by Israel Cook Russell, 1893; 
octavo, 108 pp., 15 plates. Bulletin No. 108 of the United States Geological 
Survey; price, 15 cents. 

Contains a description of the examination of the geologic structure in and adjacent to 
the drainage basin of Yakima River and the great plains of the Columbia to the east of 
this area, with special reference to the occurrence of artesian waters. 

1894. 

Report on agriculture by irrigation in the western part of the United States at the 
Eleventh Census, 1890, by F. H. Newell, 1894; quarto, 283 pp. 

Consists of a general description of the condition of irrigation in the United States, the 
area irrigated, cost of works, their value and profits; also describes the water supply, the 
value of water, of artesian wells, reservoirs, and other details; then takes up each State 
and Territory in order, giving a general description of the condition of agriculture by irri- 
gation, and discusses the physical conditions and local peculiarities in each county. 

Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1892-93, Part 
II, Accompanjdng papers, 1894; octavo, 597 pp. 

Contains papers on "Potable waters of the eastern United States," by W J McGee; 
"Natural mineral waters of the United States," by A. C Peale; and "Results of stream 
measurements," by P. H. Newell. Illustrated by maps and diagrams. 

(Continued on third page of cover.) 
IRR 25 



DEPAUTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



AYATER-SUPPLY 



lEEIGATION PAPEES 



UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



N"o. 2 5 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTlfJG OFFICE 

1899 



%■ 







ii?'^ 



\X '^ 



r^."^ 




UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL S-UKVEY 

CHAKLES I>. AVALCOTT, DIRECTOR 



WATER RESOURCES 



or THE 



STATE OF NEV YORK 



PART II 



BY 



G^EOIlGhE ^^r. R.AFTER, 







WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1899 









^s^ 

m 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Letter of transmittal - 107 

Water-storage projects - 109 

Genesee River storage reservoir 109 

Preliminary investigations - 110 

Interests to be served 111 

Investigation of the flood of 1865 112 

Mount Morris sites 113 

Portage site - _ - - - 114 

Comparison of Mount Morris and Portage sites -.. 122 

Summary _._ 124 

Water storage on Hudson River 125 

Early surveys 125 

Recent investigations 127 

Reservoir sites on Sacundaga, main Hudson, and Schroon rivers ... 128 

Effect of proposed storage on river flow 132 

Summary. _ _ 134 

Development of water powers . ... 135 

Power development at Niagara Falls . . - 135 

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company 136 

Niagara Falls Power Company 138 

Power plant at Massena, on St. Lawrence River 143 

Inland waterways 144 

Trade and commerce of Hudson River _ 144 

State canals _ 145 

Early history _ 145 

Growth and decline of canal transportation _ 151 

Cost and revenues of the New York State canal system 154 

Improvement of Erie Canal 155 

Description of the canals now in operation, and their water supply 157 

Eastern division of Erie Canal 158 

Water supply of the eastern division 158 

Middle division 161 

Reservoirs of the middle division 164 

Western division . . 165 

Ship-canal projects and water supply 166 

Loss of water from artificial channels ... 173 

Use and value of water power 178 

Water power of Erie Canal 178 

Power at Black Rock _ _ 178 

Power atLockport 179 

Power at Medina 182 

Selling price of water power 184 

State ownership of inland waters . 186 

Future use of water power in New York 188 

Obstructive effect of frazil or anchor ice 190 

Water yield of sand areas of Long Island 191 

Index _ . . 199 

105 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page. 
Plate I. Upper fall of Genesee River at Rochester, New York, at time of 

flood . 112 

II. East side of Genesee Gorge at site of proposed Portage dam 114 

III. A, Lumberman's dam on Cedar River; B, Lumberman's dam on 

Indian River . . 126 

IV. A, The George West Paper Mill on Hudson River at Hadley, New- 

York; B, Hudson River Pulp and Paper Company's mills at 

Palmer Falls on Hudson River, New York 132 

V. A, Glens Falls Paper Mill at Fort Edward, New York; B, Dam 
of the Hudson River Power Transmission Company during con- 
struction 134 

VI. Power house of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac- 
turing Company _ 136 

VII. Penstock of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufactur- 
ing Company - . 138 

VIII. A, Power house of Niagara Falls Power Company; B, Outlet of 

tunnel of Niagara Falls Power Company 140 

IX. A, Erie Canal at Buffalo, New York; B, Black Rock guard lock on 

Erie Canal 148 

X. Effect of decrease of business on Erie Canal . . 152 

XL Erie Canal at Little Falls, New York.. 158 

XII. Erie Canal at Syracuse, New York 162 

Fig. 1. Map of drainage area of Hudson River above Glens Falls. 126 

2. General plan of development of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power 

and Manufacturing Company -.. 137 

3. Map of Niagara Falls and vicinity showing location of the great 

tunnel.... 139 

106 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



Department of the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, 

Division of Hydrography, 
Washington, November 26, 1898. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript on the 
Water Resources of the State of New York, prepared by Mr. George 
W. Rafter, and to recommend that it be published as one of the series 
of papers on Water Supply and Irrigation. 

This manuscript is a continuation of the material printed in Water- 
Supply Paper No. 24, which related mainly to the physical conditions 
of river systems of the State of New York, and particularly to the 
available water supply, the floods, and the low water of some of the 
typical streams. In the present paper a discussion is given of water- 
storage projects and of the development of water power and water- 
ways. The paper as originally presented was intended for publication 
as a whole in one of the annual reports. This was found impractica- 
ble, and to secure publication at an early date it has been necessary 
to subdivide the manuscript to conform with the limitations imposed 
regarding the size of papers in this series. In spite of this disadvan- 
tage it is believed that the information contained in these two papers 
(Nos. 24 and 25) will be of value not only to the people of New York, 
but to those of other States. 

Very respectfully, F. H. Newell, 

Hydrographer in Charge. 
Hon. Charles D. Walcott, 

Director United States Geological Survey. 

107 



WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 

PART II. 



By George W. Rafter. 



WATER-STORAGE PROJECTS. 

Among the projects for storing water for power and other purposes 
are two of special importance with which the author has been con- 
cerned; the first of these is on Genesee River and the second on 
Hudson River. The following statements are for the most part con- 
densed from more detailed reports in the Annual Report of the State 
Engineer and Surveyor for 1896. 

GENESEE RIVER STORAGE RESERVOIR. 

A general description of this river has been given in Part I ( Water- 
Supply Paper No. 24), on page 25; its discharge measurements have 
been discussed on page 70, and reference has been made on page 90 
to the low-water flow, indicating that during the summer the avail- 
able supply is small. In spite of this fact, development of water 
power has proceeded rapidly. As shown by the reports on the Water 
Power of the United States in the Tenth Census (1880), the total 
water power on Genesee River from Rochester to Portage in 1882 was 
6,882 net horsepower. An examination of the amount in use on tlie 
same reach of river in 1896 showed that the total, based on manu- 
facturers' rating of wheels, was 19,178 net horsepower, or based on 
the manufacturers' statements of the quantitj^ of water required to 
operate the wheels, and allowing 75 per cent efficiency of the water, 
the total power developed by the wheels in place in 1896 is found to 
be 17,248 net horsepower, or about three times that in 1882. In com- 
parison with the figures it should be noted that for several months 
during the summer and fall of 1895 the total power did not exceed 
6,000 horsepower. The same condition has existed during the dry 
period of a number of years previous, but not so seriously as in tlie 
fall of 1895. 

109 



110 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS. 

The increased demand for power, as well as the serious summer 
droughts, led to tHe formulation of a project for constructing a storage 
reservoir at some point on the head waters of Genesee River for 
assisting the summer flow. The first project included the develop- 
ment of the basin of Honeoye Lake to its full capacity, surveys having 
been made for that purpose in 1887 and 1888. It appeared, however, 
that the yield of this drainage basin, which is only about 43.5 square 
miles, was hardly adequate for the results desired, the estimate show- 
ing that even when developed to its full capacity it could not be 
depended on to furnish, in a dry year, more than 75 cubic feet per 
second, while the exigencies of the case demanded at least several 
hundred cubic feet per second. The project of building a large stor- 
age reservoir on upper Genesee River was then formulated by the 
Rochester Chamber of Commerce. 

In the meantime a number of breaks on the long level of the Erie 
Canal, which extends from the foot of the locks at Lockport to the 
eastern part of the city of Rochester, a distance of about 62. 5 miles, 
had emphasized the importance of the State's providing additional 
water for feeding the canal east of Rochester. For this purpose the 
construction of a large storage reservoir was advocated by the Roch- 
ester Chamber of Commerce as a State work, with the result that under 
a resolution of the senate dated March 21, 1889, the State engineer 
and surveyor was directed to make a general investigation in regard 
to the possibility of storing water on the upper Genesee. The 
report made under the authority of this resolution appears in the 
Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the year 1890. 
In 1892, under authority of a concurrent resolution dated March 
15 of that year, Governor Flower appointed a commission consisting 
of Evan Thomas, Judge Charles McLouth, and John Bogart to inves- 
tigate and report on the whole question of storage on the upper 
Genesee. This commission examined the site of the proposed reser- 
voir and reported that it was entirely feasible to construct a large 
reservoir on the upper Genesee River, the site especially considered 
by the commission being in the Genesee canyon or gorge, a short dis- 
tance above Mount Morris, already described in Part I. 

As the result of the recommendations of this commission, the sum 
of $10,000 was appropriated at the legislative session of 1893 for the 
purpose of studying in detail the several proposed sites for dams in 
the canyon of Genesee River, above Mount Morris. At that time 
the work was placed in charge of the author, and has since remained 
in his hands. ^ 

At the legislative session of 1894 a bill to construct a dam in the 
canyon a short distance above Mount Morris passed the senate, but 

1 The result of the studies in 1893 may be found in the Annual Reports of the State Engineer 
and Surveyor for the fiscal years ending September 30, 1893 and 1894. 



RAFTER.] GENESEE RIVER STORAGE RESERVOIR. Ill 

failed in the assembly. At the session of 1895 a similar bill passed 
both the senate and assembly, but was vetoed by Governor Morton, 
largely on the ground that the bill as passed made no provision for 
the owners of the water power and other interested parties bearing 
any portion of the expense. In his veto Governor Morton expressed 
the belief that if the State should determine to build a dam on 
Genesee River some provision should be made by which the city of 
Rochester— and possibly other localities interested in the work — 
might contribute to the expense of construction. Governor Morton 
also pointed out that if the proposed canal enlargement be approved 
by the people public sentiment might justify the construction of a 
storage dam on Genesee River for canal purposes. On the other 
hand, if the proposition to deepen the canal should not be approved 
the question would still remain whether such a dam might not be 
desirable for the purpose of regulating the river and increasing the 
water power thereon. 

In order to complete the preliminary investigations relative to the 
proposed Genesee storage, Governor Morton, in 1896, approved an 
additional appropriation, Avhich was expended during the summer of 
that year in completing the additional surveys. To the present time 
the State has expended on preliminary investigation of the Genesee 
storage project the following amounts: In 1890, $3,000; in 1892, $7,000; 
in 1893, $10,000; in 1896, $10,000; in all, $30,000. As a result of this 
expenditure complete plans and specifications have been prepared as 
shoAvn in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for 
1896.1 

INTERESTS TO BE SERVED. 

The following are the interests to be served by the construction of 
these extensive storage works on Genesee River: 

(1) The flow of the river would be regulated, thus effectually pre- 
venting in the future the devastating floods which occurred in 1815, 
1835, 1857, 1865, 1889, 1893, 1894, and 1896. The floods in the years just 

1 By way of presenting a full list of the work on the Genesee storage, reference may be made 
to the special report of John Bogart, State engineer and surveyor, in Appendix F of the Annual 
Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1890. The 
reports of Messrs. Bailey and Kibbe, assistant engineers to Mr. Bogart, are covered by the same 
reference. The report of Martin Schenck, State engineer and surveyor, may be found at page 
44 of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending Septem- 
ber 30, 1893. The report of E. Sweet, ex-State engineer and surveyor, as consulting engineer, 
may be found in Appendix H of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the 
fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The report of the commissioners appointed in 1893 by 
Governor Flower may be found in Senate Doc. No. 23, 1893. The first report of the writer may 
be found in Appendix G of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the 
fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The second report may be found in Appendix E of the 
Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1894. 
The work done in 1896 is described at length in the Annual Report of the State Engineer and 
Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1896. See also a paper by the writer, The 
Genesee River storage and its relations to the Erie Canal and the maniifacturing interests of 
western New York, prepared for the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. This paper contains 
a large amount of historical information not given in the official reports. Governor Morton's 
veto may be found in the Governor's State Papers for 1895. 



112 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

enumerated were especially severe, but floods not so severe, yet doing 
considerable damage, have occurred in several of the intervening 
years. The most severe flood was that of 1865, which destroyed fully 
11,000,000 worth of property in the city of Rochester. 

(2) Water would be supplied for the enlarged Erie Canal. Accord- 
ing to Mr. Bogart's report of 1890, there should have been provided 
a storage on Genesee River of 1,500,000,000 cubic feet for the pur- 
pose of supplying Erie Canal as it existed at that date. Estimates 
made in 1896 show that for the purpose of fully supplying the 
enlarged canal, as now in process, there should be made a storage on 
Genesee River of 2,500,000,000 cubic feet. 

(3) The agricultural production of the broad level area included 
in Genesee Valley between Rochester, Mount Morris, and Dansville, 
estimated at from 60 to 80 square miles, might be greatly increased 
by moderate irrigation if the flood contingency was removed and the 
proper irrigation channels were constructed. 

(4) Considerable sanitary benefit to this section would result from 
the increased flow during the low- water period through the proposed 
regulation. The entire sewage at Rochester, a city of 160,000 inhab- 
itants, now passes into Genesee River. The channel of this stream, 
between the foot of Lower Falls at Rochester and Lake Ontario, is so 
broad and deep that during the time of extreme low water in the 
summer and fall the current is scarcely perceptible. The sewage of 
the city therefore lodges in this section, producing a serious nuisance. 
The regulation of the river, by preventing floods, would also improve 
the sanitary condition of the broad upper valley, where the annual 
overflow has been shown to cause more or less sickness. 

(5) The water power would be increased. Wheels are now set on 
Genesee River capable of producing, at the manufacturers' rating, 
19,178 horsepower, while the low- water flow of the stream does not 
exceed about 6,000 horsepower. The regulation as finally proposed 
would produce much more power than this. 

In summation of the preceding points it may be urged, in general, 
that in constructing the proposed Genesee storage dam, in addition to 
the private interests to be conserved, public service of an extended 
character would be performed. 

INVESTIGATION OF THE FLOOD OF 1865. 

The great flood of March, 1865, worked such destruction that the 
legislature, on May 1 of that year, passed an act appointing commis- 
sioners to ascertain the cause of the inundation of the city of Roches- 
ter, what obstructions, if any, had been placed in the river, and what 
measures, proceedings, and remedies were necessary to guard against 
the recurrence of such an inundation. The commissioners appointed 
under this act examined carefully the evidence as to the flood, and 
arrived at the conclusion that there were three principal causes: 



RAFTER.] MOUNT MORRIS RESERVOIR SITES. 113 

(1) The sudden melting of an immense body of snow which had 
accumulated during the previous winter. 

(2) Obstructions caused by the bridge and embankment of what is 
now the New York, Lake Erie and Western Railway at Avon. The 
openings at this place are stated to have been adequate for ordinary 
floods, but entirely too small for the quantity flowing in March, 1865. 
Hence, at the time of greatest flow, the water stood three feet higher 
on the upper side of the embankment than on the lower side. The 
embankment finally gave way, thus allowing a large quantity of 
ponded water to flow suddenly down the river, filling the channel at 
Rochester beyond its carrying capacity. 

(3) Obstruction of the channel of the river through the city of Roch- 
ester in such manner as to cause overflows into the Erie and Genesee 
Valley canals at that place. The commissioners also point out that 
the construction of the Erie Canal aqueduct is such as materially to 
increase the obstruction at Rochester. 

From the best available figures the maximum flow at Rochester in 
the great flood of March, 1865, probably did not exceed about 40,000 
cubic feet per second. The danger limit is reached when the flow at 
that place approximates 33,000 cubic feet per second. 

The following are the openings of the several bridges, etc., span- 
ning Erie Canal in the city of Rochester, as they exist at present: 
Court street bridge, 5,081 square feet; Main street, 3,367 square feet; 
Andrews street, 4,511 square feet; Central avenue, 4,450 square feet; 
Erie Canal aqueduct, 4,308 square feet. 

As a chief cause of the 1865 flood the commissioners considered that 
cutting off the forests and clearing lands were likely to lead to heavier 
floods from year to year. In view, therefore, of what seemed to the 
commissioners a constant source of danger, they arrived at the con- 
clusion that a much larger waterway through the city of Rochester 
was imperative. It may be here remarked that the waterway at 
Rochester is still substantially the same as in 1865 ; if anything, it 
has been somewhat contracted by various constructions since that 
date. ^ 

MOUNT MORRIS SITES. 

Referring to Mr. Bogart's report of 1890, it is learned that the inves- 
tigations of that year were general in their character. The work was 
carried on more particularly with reference to a location in Genesee 
River gorge, between Mount Morris and the foot of the Portage Falls. 
No detailed surveys were made further than necessary to make a 
general estimate of the cost of a dam 58 feet in height, which would 
store 1,500,000,000 cubic feet, the amount considered necessary for 
canal purposes alone. Such a dam, Mr. Bogart estimates, could be 
erected for about $1,000,000. 

1 For report of the commissioners appointed to investigate the causes of the inundation of the 
city of Rochester in March, 1865, see Ass. Doc. No. 117 (1866). 



114 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

The work performed under the direction of the author, in 1893, was 
of an entirely different character. The report of 1890 having indi- 
cated the Mount Morris Canyon as a desirable location, with a num- 
ber of sites pointed out, of which general investigations had been 
made, it became desirable to investigate those sites in detail and to 
prepare close estimates of the cost of constructing dams at each. 
Detailed investigations were accordingly made of the three sites favor- 
ably reported upon in 1890, the results of which may be found in the 
Annual Reports of the State Engineer, and Surveyor for 1893 and 
1894, where estimates of the cost of the several dams are also given 
in detail. Referring to the estimates, it appears that at site No. 1, 
in Mount Morris Canyon, a dam raising the water surface 130 feet 
would cost, if built of concrete alone, $2,450,000, but if built with 
sandstone faces throughout, except for the spillway, where granite is 
provided, the estimated cost would become 12,590,000. A dam of the 
same height at site No. 2, if built throughout of concrete, would cost 
$2,600,000, but with sandstone faces and independent spillway the 
cost would be $2,720,500, or, with roadway, 12,785,000. 

In regard to the total storage to be obtained in Mount Morris Canyon 
the following are the figures at sites Nos. 1 and 2, the two sites chiefly 
considered: At site No. 1 a dam 130 feet in height will store 7,700,- 
000,000 cubic feet, and at site No. 2 a dam of the same height will 
store 7,040,000,000 cubic feet. Since no conclusion has been reached 
as to which of these sites to adopt, for the purposes of comparison a 
mean of 7,370,000,000 cubic feet has been taken as the approximate 
available storage, and the mean of $2,785,000 as the approximate total 
cost. On this basis the estimated cost of this storage becomes 1377.88 
per million cubic feet stored. 

PORTAGE SITE. 

As already stated, the investigations of the Genesee River storage 
project were finally completed in 1896. In that year detailed surveys 
were made of a new site known as Portage site (shown on PL II), 
the proposed dam to be located at Portage, about 1,400 feet above the 
Erie Railway bridge, at a point where the gorge presents extremely 
favorable conditions for the erection of a high dam. At this place 
solid rock exists immediately in the bed of the river, with only a 
couple of feet of water flowing over it, and also extends high up on 
the bluffs at either side, whereas at all of the sites in the gorge near 
Mount Morris the rock was only found at from 15 to 20 feet below the 
water surface and of such an open texture as to require cut-off 
trenches about 30 feet deep, or to a total depth of nearly 50 feet 
below the water. The proposed Portage dam is also 500 feet verti- 
cally above the previously mentioned dam site, thus rendering that 
additional number of feet available for power purposes — a fact which 



RAFTER.] PORTAGE RESERVOIR SITE. 115 

places a materially different aspect on the commercial side of the 
Genesee River storage project. 

A short distance above the proposed Portage site the upper Genesee 
Vallej^ broadens out to a width in places of from one to two miles, 
although the general width of the valley does not exceed, for several 
miles in extent longitudinally, about one mile. It narrows in two or 
three places to a less width than this. The valley is now a good agri- 
cultural region, in a fair state of cultivation, and presents, on the 
whole, as favorable conditions for farming as any similar valley in 
the State. The Western New York and Pennsylvania Railway 
passes through the middle of the valley on the line of the abandoned 
Genesee Valley Canal. Along the line of this railway the villages 
of Portageville, Rossburg, Wiscoy, and Fillmore are situated. The 
reservoir project includes the relaying of the railway above the flow 
line on the west side of the valley, as well as the removal of the vil- 
lages named. The total area below the flow line is 12.4 square miles 
and the entire area proposed to be taken for reservoir purposes, 
including a strip 10 feet vertically above the flow line, is 13.7 square 
miles. The project also includes the removal of several cemeteries, 
the building of highway bridges across the reservoir, and the con- 
struction of a roadway entirely around the same. 

Without having made a detailed canvass, it is estimated that the 
present population of the proposed Portage reservoir site, in the 
villages and on the farms, is about 1,200. In reference to dispossess- 
ing this number of people of their homes for the purpose of creating 
a large storage reservoir, it may be said that such a proceeding is not 
only not uncommon in this State, but that the population to be 
removed in the case of the new Croton reservoir is far greater than at 
the Portage reservoir. According to maps furnished by the Croton 
water department, it appears that the new Croton reservoir includes 
the taking of either the whole or parts of something like three large 
villages and nine or ten hamlets. The total population to be removed 
from the submerged area of the new Croton reservoir is not given, but 
actual inspection of maps of the proposed sites indicates that it must 
be several times larger than the number to be dispossessed at Portage. 
The villages of Katonah, Purdy Station, and Croton Falls are much 
larger than any of the villages in the Portage reservoir site. The 
main line of the New York and Northern Railroad passes for several 
miles through the valley and requires relocating above the flow line, 
the same as is proposed for the Western New York and Pennsylvania 
Railway along the Portage reservoir. It appears, therefore, that the 
city of New York is now doing under State laws everything in the 
way of so-called radical change which it is proposed to do at Portage. 
In both cases the sufficient reason for these changes may be found in 
the better meeting of public necessities. 



116 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

The estimated cost of the proposed Portage reservoir, including 
land damages, dam, reconstruction of railway, removal of cemeteries, 
the cutting of all timber within the drainage areas, the construction 
of highway bridges, etc., is 12,600,000, the storage to be provided by 
this expenditure amounting to 15,000,000,000 cubic feet; at this rate 
the cost per million cubic feet stored is 1173.33. The main character- 
istics of the proposed reservoir are shown by the following table, con- 
densed from pages 708 and 709 of the report of the State Engineer and 
Surveyor of New York for 1896: 

Capacity of proposed Portage reservoir. 



Elevation 
of water 
surface 

above sea 
level. 


Area of 

water 

surface. 


Total volume of 
water in reservoir. 


Inches on 
water- 
shed. 


Feet. 


Sq. miles. 


Cubic feet. 




1,100.0 


0. 2320 


101,400,000 


0.044 


1,105.0 


0.5330 


217,623,000 


0.094 


1,110.0 


0.8340 


333, 900, 000 


0.143 


1,115.0 


1.1350 


450,100,000 


0.194 


1,120.0 


1.4357 


566, 300, 000 


0.244 


1,125.0 


2. 0659 


942,100,000 


0.406 


1,130.0 


2.6692 


1,318,000,000 


0.567 


1,135.0 


3. 3264 


1, 694, 000, 000 


0.729 


1,140.0 


3.9566 


2, 070, 000, 000 


0.891 


1,145.0 


4.5255 


2, 780, 000, 000 


1.196 


1,150.0 


5. 0944 


3,490,000,000 


1.502 


1,155.0 


5.6633 


4, 200, 000, 000 


1.808 


1,160.0 


6. 2322 


4,910,000,000 


2.113 


1,165.0 


6.8293 


5, 945, 000, 000 


2.559 


1,170.0 


7. 4264 


6,980,000,000 


3.004 


1,172.0 


7.6652 


7, 395, 000, 000 


3.182 


1,173.0 


7. 7846 


7,602,000,000 


3.271 


1,175.0 


8.0235 


8, 016, 000, 000 


3.451 


1,180.0 


8. 6206 


9,051,000,000 


3.896 


1,185.0 


9.4363 


10,366,000,000 


4.462 


1,190.0 


10. 2518 


11,681,500,000 


5.016 


1,195.0 


11.3007 


13, 257, 000, 000 


5,710 


1,200.0 


12, 3495 


15, 000, 000, 000 


6.458 



Comparing the foregoing statements of cost with those made on the 
preceding page with reference to the cost of the proposed reservoir 
in Mount Morris Canyon, it appears that at Portage a storage of 
15,000,000,000 cubic feet can be made for somewhat less than the cost 



RAFTER] PORTAGE RESERVOIR SITE. 117 

of 7,300,000,000 cubic feet at Mount Morris; or, as a general statement, 
we may say that a given expenditure at Portage produces double the 
storage that it will produce at Mount Morris. The Portage reservoir 
develops the full capacity of the drainage area for such a dry year as 
1895. It is considered that this full development is necessary in order 
to obtain the most satisfactory results in river regulation. 

As reasons in detail for preferring Portage site to that at Mount 
Morris, the following may be mentioned : 

(1) The Portage site affords more water for a given expenditure. 

(2) The Portage site is considered safer than the Mount Morris site. 
As shown in the Genesee Storage Reports of 1893-94, the shales at 
Mount Morris are open ; and while it is, without doubt, possible to 
make a safe dam there, it would be at much greater cost than at Port- 
age. In view of the large storage provided at either place, the dam 
must be absolutely safe, as its failure would work vast destruction. 

(3) The material for the dam is nearly all on the ground at Portage, 
while at Mount Morris it needs to be brought from a distance. 

(4) The Portage site affords greater water-power development. 
With the Genesee storage dam located at Mount Morris the total head 
on which the storage can be applied is 282 feet, while with a dam at 
Portage the total head on which the stored water may be ai)plied is 
782 feet. 

(5) On account of great depth of foundation at Mount Morris, it 
would be necessary to expend over 11,000,000 before the dam could 
be brought to the level of the present water surface. The conditions 
are such that the floods of every spring would sweep over the work, 
obliterating all evidence that any money had been expended, which 
must necessarily continue for at least two or three years, until the 
foundations could be fully placed. At Portage, on the other hand, a 
good foundation is found near the water level. Indeed, the difference 
in cost of foundation is such that nearly the total expenditure at 
Mount Morris is for the dam, the flowage ground costing only 175,000, 
while at Portage the estimated cost of the dam is only 11,000,000, the 
balance of the expenditure there being for right of way, change of 
railway line, etc. 

The proposed regulation of Genesee River has been computed on 
the basis of a minimum discharge of 300 cubic feet i)er second, in 
the case of a reservoir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic feet, and also on a 
basis of 457 cubic feet per second in the case of a reservoir storing 
15,000,000,000 cubic feet. As to the reason for fixing upon these 
minimums, it may be remarked that in river regulation the outflow 
from the storage reservoir should be so arranged as to make the 
benefit to all parts of the stream equal. Especially is this proposition 
true when, as in the present case, there is water power distributed 
IRR 25 2 



118 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 



throughout the whole extent of the stream below the storage point. 
Obviously the way to do this is to plan for an outflow proportional to 
the drainage area. In the present case we have a drainage area at 
Rochester of 2,365 square miles, and one of 1,000 square miles above 
Portage, or the area above Rochester is about 2 J times the area above 
Portage. The minimum regulated flow at Rochester may justly be 
made 2.365 times the assumed minimum flow' at Portage. 

Assuming 680 cubic feet per second as the flow below which the 
vstream will never be allowed to fall at Rochester, we have for a reser- 
voir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic feet a corresponding minimum out- 
flow from the reservoir of 300 cubic feet per second, or for a storage of 
15,000,000,000 cubic feet an outflow of 457 cubic feet per second, the 
latter figure being arrived at by assuming the maintenance of a mini- 
mum flow at Rochester of at least 1,080 cubic feet per second. The 
computations of the tables on pages 119 to 121 are carried out on this 
basis. The regulated flows for the month of May are greater than 
for the other months. They are also greatest during the months of 
canal navigation, the addition being made in order to provide for 
the quantity of water to be taken for the enlarged Erie Canal, which 
quantity has been fixed at 80 cubic feet per second for every month 
of the navigation season except May, and at 177 cubic feet per 
second for that month, the excess quantity for the month of May being 
required in order to provide for filling the canal at the beginning of 
the month. 

The first table shows the effect on the flow of Genesee River from 
June, 1894, to November, 1896, inclusive, as influenced by the storage 
at Portage of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet of water, provided at least 300 
cubic feet per second is allowed to flow continually at Portage, and 
at least 600 cubic feet per second is always flowing at Rochester in 
addition to the amount required for canal purposes. The figures 
given in the left-hand column show the proposed minimum flow at 
Rochester, this being the 600 second-feet above noted, together with 
80 second-feet for the canal for the months from June to November, 
inclusive, and 177 second-feet for the month of Ma3\ The next two 
columns give the discharges at Rochester and Portage under natural 
conditions. The fourth column is the difference between these, or 
the quantity of water entering the river below Portage, and next to 
this is the minimum amount to be added at Portage in order to main- 
tain the proposed minimum flow at Rochester of 600 cubic feet per 
second, not including the amount taken by the canal. The quan- 
tity available at Rochester for power purposes is shown in the next 
column, and is obtained by adding the flow at Rochester, less the flow 
at Portage, to the actual flow from Portage reservoir and the surplus 
flowing over the spillway at Portage reservoir, and then deducting the 
quantity taken by the canal. 



RAFTER.] PORTAGE RESERVOIR SITE. 

■ Regulation of Genesee River by storage at Portage. 



119 



[With storage of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet at Portage and flow of at least (•(K) second-feet at Roch- 
ester.] 



Month. 



Proposed 
mini- 
mum 
flow at 
Roches- 
ter. 



1894. 

June 

July 

August _ - . . - 
September . 

October 

November . 

December _ _ . 

1895. 

January 

February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August .... 
September _ 

October 

November _ 
December . _ 

1896. 
January ... 
February __ 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September _ 

October 

November . 



Sec-feet. 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 
600 

600 
600 
600 
600 
777 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 
600 

600 
600 
600 
600 
777 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 
680 



Natural 
flow at 
Roches- 
ter. 



Sec-feet. 

2,321 

- 292 

442 

1,963 

899 

1,729 

1,256 

1,335 
495 

3,985 

4,257 
385 
283 
232 
254 
221 
230 
993 

2,710 

964 

2,005 

6,158 

7,172 

347 

654 

501 

416 

327 

3,667 

1,728 



Natural 
flow at 
Portage. 



Sec-feet. 
981 

123 
187 
830 
380 
731 
531 

565 

209 

1,684 

1,800 

163 

120 

98 

108 

93 

97 

420 

1,146 

408 

848 

2,604 

3,033 

147 

277 

211 

176 

138 

1,556 

731 



Flow at 
Roches- 
ter less 
flow at 
Portage. 



Mini- 
mum 

amount 

to bo 
added at 

Portage 



Available 

at 
Roches- 
ter. 



Sec-feet. 

1,340 
169 
255 

1,133 
519 
998 

725 

770 

286 

2,301 

2,457 

222 

163 

134 

146 

128 

133 

573 

1,564 

556 

1,157 

3,554 

4,139 

200 

377 

290 

240 

189 

2,111 

997 



Sec-feet. 



511 
425 



161 



314 



555 
517 
546 
534 
552 
547 
107 



44 



577 
303 
390 
440 
491 



Actual 

flow from 

Portage 

resei'- 

voir. 



Sec-feet. 

2,205 
600 
600 

1,353 
739 

1,505 

1,241 

1,330 
600 

3,867 

4,197 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
793 

1,864 

856 

1,457 

4,999 

7,155 

600 

600 

600 

600 

600 

2,331 

1,486 



Sec-feet. 
300 
511 
425 
300 
300 
300 
300 

300 
314 
300 
'300 
555 
517 
546 
534 
552 
547 
300 
300 

300 
300 
300 
300 
577 
303 
390 
440 
491 
300 
300 



Surplus 
flowing 

over 
spillway. 



Sec-feet. 
645 



287 
216 

260 



1,266 
1,440 



1,145 
2,716 



269 



120 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

The actual flow from Portage reservoir is taken to be the minimum 
of 300 cubic feet per second ordinarily assumed, plus the amount 
necessary to make up the deficiency in the quantity of water entering 
the river at points between Portage and Rochester. The last column 
that on the right-hand side, shows the surplus flowing over the spill- 
way at Portage reservoir during the comparatively few months when 
the natural flow has filled the reservoir, supplied all demands of 
evaporation from the surface, and still is in excess. 

The next table exhibits the condition of the reservoir from month 
to month under the above conditions. The figures are given not in 
cubic contents but in equivalent depth in inches on the total tribu- 
tary watershed of 1,000 square miles. The reservoir is assumed to be 
full at the beginning and end of June, 1894, the total storage of the 
reservoir being equivalent to 3.23 inches in depth on the watershed. 
The total waste from June 1, 1894, to December 1, 1896, equals, under 
the conditions of this table, 9.36 inches on the watershed. 

Flow into and from Portage reservoir under the conditions assumed, 
[In inches on watershed.] 





Inflow 
to reser- 
voir. 


Outgo from reservoir. 


Excess. 


Defi- 
ciency. 


In reser- 
voir at 
end of 
month. 




Month. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Amount 

to 
stream. 


Total 
outgo. 


Wasted. 


1894. 
June 


1.10 
.14 

.22 
.93 
.44 
.82 
.61 

.66 

.22 

1.94 

2.01 

.19 

.13 

.11 

.12 

.10 

.11 

.47 

1.82 


0.03 
.04 
.04 
.03 
.02 
.01 
.01 

.01 
.01 
.01 
.02 
.04 
.04 
.03 
.03 
.02 
.01 
.01 
.01 


0.33 
.59 
.49 
.33 
.35 
.33 
.35 

.35 
.33 
.35 
.33 
.64 
.58 
.63 
.61 
.62 
.61 
.33 
.35 


0.36 
.63 
.53 
.36 
.37 
.34 
.36 

.36 
.34 
.36 
.35 
.68 
.62 
.66 
.64 
.64 
.62 
.34 
.36 






3.72 
2.76 
2.45 
3.02 
3.09 
3.25 
3.25 

3.25 

3.13 

3.25 

3.25 

2.76 

2.27 

1.72 

1.20 

.66 

.15 

.28 

1.24 


0.72 


July.. 

August 

September . _ 

October 

November ._ 

December . . . 

1895. 

January 

February ... 

March 

April 

May 

June.- 

July........ 

August 

September . . 

October 

November ._ 
December . . . 


0.57 
.07 
,48 
.25 

.30 

1.58 
1.66 

.13 
..96 


0.49 
.31 

.12 

.49 
.49 
.55 
.52 
.54 
.51 


.32 
.25 

.30 

1.46 
1.66 



RAFTER.] 



PORTAGE RESERVOIR SITE. 



121 



Flow into and from Portage reservoir under the conditions assumed — Cont'd. 

[In inches on watershed.] 





Inflow 
to reser- 
voir. 


Outgo from reservoir. 


Exce.s.s. 


Defi- 
ciency. 


In reser- 
voir at 
end of 
month. 




Month. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Amount 

to 
stream. 


Total 
outgo. 


Wasted. 


1896. 

January 

February ... 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . . 

October 

November _. 


.47 

.91 

3.00 

3.38 

.17 

.39 

.24 

.20 

.16 

1.74 

.82 


.01 
.01 
.01 
.02 
.03 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.02 
.02 
.01 


.35 
.32 
.35 
.33 
.67 
.34 
.45 
.51 
.57 
.35 
.33 


.36 
.33 
.36 
.35 
.70 
.38 
.49 
.55 
.59 
.37 
.34 


.11 

.58 

2.64 

3.03 

.01 



1.37 

.48 




.53 

.25 
.35 
.43 



1.35 
1.93 
3.25 
3.25 
2.72 
2.73 
2.48 
2.18 
1.70 
3.07 
3.25 


1.32 
3.03 

.30 



Similar tables might be given, showing the regulation of the river 
as affected by the storage at Portage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet of 
water for the same period, with at least 457 cubic feet per second 
always flowing at Portage, and at least 1,000 cubic feet per second at 
Rochester, in addition to the amount required for the canal. The 
chief difference is that during only three months of this period would 
there be any overflow through the spillway, the total waste equaling 
2.11 inches. This would be in June, 1894, 521 second-feet; in April, 
1895, 1,058 second-feet; in April, 1896, 350 second-feet. The amount 
at Rochester under the same conditions would be in no case below 
1,000 second-feet. 

It may here be pointed out that had the enlarged canal been in 
operation in July, 1894, and taking the estimated quantity of 80 cubic 
feet of water per second from Genesee River, the amount of water 
going to the canal would have been 27.4 per cent of the total flow of 
the river for that month; in August 18.1 per cent; in May, 1895, 46 
I)er cent; in June, 28.3 per cent; in July, 34.5 per cent; in August, 
31.0 per cent; in September, 36.2 per cent; and in October, 34.8 per 
cent. In May, 1896, the canal would have taken 51.3 per cent of the 
total flow of the river for that month; in June, 12.2 per cent; in July, 
15.9 per cent; in August, 19.2 per cent; and in September, 24.5 per 
cent. It appears, therefore, that the taking of 80 cubic feet per sec- 
ond from Genesee River for canal purposes is a very serious matter 
to the water power of the stream and is unjustifiable, unless it be 
clearly shown that the addition to the wealth of the State is greater 



122 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25 

than if the water were used for supplying power. The actual damage 
resulting from taking at times 50 jjer cent of the unregulated flow of 
the stream is about as follows: As shown on a previous page, the 
jninimum flow of the river is capable of producing 6,727 gross horse- 
power, or, what is the same thing, assuming 75 per cent efficiencj^ 
5,046 net horsepower. One-half of the low- water power may there- 
fore be taken at 2,523 net horsepower. 

So long as the possibility exists of a draft upon the river equal to 
one-half of its minimum flow, this 2,523 net horsepower is practically 
rendered useless to its owners by reason of the uncertainty as to the 
exact time of the draft, or if not rendered useless, is far less valuable 
than if it were absolutely permanent power. In enforcing this view 
it may be pointed out that Rochester is a manufacturing town, made 
up chiefly of establishments using comparatively small quantities of 
power at each place, but that the power must still be continuous 
every day; that is to say, it must be absolutely permanent power. 
So long, therefore, as one-half the total minimum power of the stream 
is subject to stoppage during any month, the manufacturers will pref- 
erably use steam power, on account of its permanency, even at con- 
siderably greater expense. Bearing on this view, the fact may be 
pointed out that the use of soft coal in Rochester for steam purposes 
is stated as 500,000 tons a year, which, at an average price of $2.40 
per ton, amounts to the sum of 11,200,000 annually. It may be con- 
sidered settled, therefore, that water power is valuable at Rochester, 
and that anything which tends to reduce the permanent power 50 per 
cent is a very serious matter to the manufacturers of the city. 

COMPARISON OF MOUNT MORRIS AND PORTAGE SITES. 

As a final point in the discussion of Genesee River storage, com- 
parison will be made between the Mount Morris project, storing 
7,370,000,000 cubic feet, at a cost of 12,785,000, and the Portage project, 
storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet, at an estimated cost of $2,600,000, for 
the purpose of determining the relative commercial advantages. 

With the reservoir at Mount Morris storing 7,370,000,000 cubic feet 
there is 282 feet fall, on which 7,370,000,000 cubic feet, less the quan- 
tity required for the canal, may be applied for power purposes. As 
already explained, the constant outflow from the reservoir would 
never be less than 300 cubic feet a second. Continuous power devel- 
opment under this plan would, therefore, be based on 300 cubic feet 
a second at Mount Morris, something more than this at Geneseo and 
^ork, and on 600 cubic feet a second at Rochester. On this basis 
of computation it appears that the total permanent, continuous 
power to be realized from a reservoir storing 7,370,000,000 cubic feet 
and located in the Mount Morris Gorge would be 18,327 gross horse- 
power. 

In regard to the increase in water power, the effective value of the 
storage will be the amount of permanent power above the low- water 



RAFTEu] COMPARISON OF MOUNT MORRIS AND PORTAGE SITES. 123 

power of the stream. As already stated, the total permanent power 
for the unregulated stream is 6,727 gross horsepower. The gain due 
to the storage is, therefore, 11,000 gross horsepower. Assuming a 
price of $10 per gross horsepower, we reach an annual return from the 
increased power of 1116,000; but the Mount Morris reservoir is esti- 
mated to cost $2,785,000. If we assume the project carried out by a 
private company, with money at 5 per cent, the annual interest on 
the investment is $139,250 — a sum $23,250 in excess of the probable 
annual income when all the power created shall have been brought 
into use ; but there should be a sinking, maintenance, and repair fund 
of at least $25,000 a year, in order to repay the principal investment, 
which if taken into account increases the probable deficiency to 
$48,250 a year. It must be concluded, therefore, that with the pres- 
ent understanding as to the minimum run-off of Genesee River the 
project of a storage reservoir in Mount Moms Canyon, storing ap- 
proximately 7,370,000,000 cubic feet of Avater, at a cost of $2,785,000, 
is commercially impracticable. 

If we consider the Portage project in its financial aspects, where it 
is proposed to construct a reservoir storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet 
of water, at a cost of $2,600,000, we reach the following results: 

The total fall from just above the upper fall at Portage to the mean 
level of Lake Ontario is 785 feet, of which the greater portion is avail- 
able for the development of water power. Without going into detail, 
we may place the permanent, continuous gross horsepower of the 
river, TNdth a storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet at Portage, at the 
following figures: 

Power of Genesee River after construction of reservoir at Portage. 

Gross horsepower. 

Portage to Mount Morris _ . 25, 924 

Mount Morris 835 

Geneseo and York 624 

Rochester _ 29, 840 

Total 57,223 

Deducting from 57,223 gx'oss horsepower the present permanent 
power of 6,727 gross horsepower, we have 50,496 gross horsepower as 
the net increase in the permanent water power of the stream due to 
the construction of the Portage reservoir. At $10 per gross horse- 
power, as before, the annual income when the power is utilized 
amounts to $504,960. The estimated cost of producing this vast 
increase in poAver is $2,600,000. Assuming an interest rate of 5 per 
cent, the annual interest is $130,000; adding to that amount $25,000 
for sinking fund, maintenance, and repairs, the total annual expense 
becomes $155,000. The difference of $349,960 is the net annual income. 

As alread}^ shown, when interest is taken into account, the Mount 
Morris project becomes commercially impracticable. The Portage 
project, on the other hand, shows an annual income, above interest 
account, sinking fund, maintenance, and repairs, of $349,950, which. 



124 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART 11, [no. 25. 

capitalized at 5 per cent, represents $6,999,000. If we assume 4 per 
cent, the capitalization of tlie annual income may be expected ulti- 
mately to represent $8,748,750. 

SUMMARY. 

Lack of space prevents discussion in greater detail of the Genesee 
River storage project, and the following summation is presented as 
embodying the main points of the discussion : 

(1) Of the several available sites for reservoirs on Genesee River 
that at Portage is preferable to others, because it affords the largest 
storage at the smallest cost per unit volume. 

(2) Serious floods have occurred a number of times in Genesee 
River at Rochester, the most serious being that of March, 1865. At 
least $1,000,000 loss resulted from that flood. The flood in April, 1896, 
was nearly as severe as the flood of March, 1865, although, as the 
river channel was clear, very little -damage ensued. 

(3) As the result of three years' measurements of Genesee River, 
it is determined that the minimum flow of the stream may for the 
entire year be as low as 6.67 inches on the watershed. 

(4) A study of existing conditions shows that the Genesee River 
drainage area has been nearly denuded of forests, and hence that 
severe spring floods are likely to be frequent. For the same reason 
the summer flow of the stream is less than formerly. 

(5) As a tentative conclusion, based on the data at hand, it may be 
said that deforestation of a drainage area may tend not only to 
increase floods somewhat, but to decrease materially the amount of 
the annual run-off. 

(6) A comparison of the conditions existing on the drainage area of 
Genesee River with those of the upper Hudson, which is still largely 
in forest, shows less run-off under given conditions from the Genesee 
than from the Hudson, thus indicating the probable effect of the for- 
est in increasing the run-off. 

(7) As regards the upper Genesee drainage area, the forest has 
been removed by landowners who have commercially profited by such 
romoval; the effect, however, has been to injure permanently every 
riparian owner on the stream ; hence it is proper that the State should 
spend money either in partially reforesting the area or in constructing 
river regulation works. The latter is preferable, because the benefits 
can be realized in a few years. If the State does not desire to con- 
struct such works, there should be no obstacles interposed to their 
construction by a private company. 

(8) The proposed Portage reservoir will impound 15,000,000,000 
cubic feet of water, at an estimated cost of $2,600,000, or at a cost of 
$173.33 per million cubic feet stored. It affords a permanent, con- 
tinuous power above the present low-water flow of the stream of 
50,496 gross horsepower, while the reservoir at Mount Morris affords 
only 11,600 horsepower above the present low- water power of the 
stream. 



RAFTER] STORAGE ON HUDSON RIVER. 125 

(0) Based on manufacturers' ratings, the present total developed 
water power of Genesee River from Portage to Rochester, inclusive, 
is 19,178 net horsepower; or, basing the amount of water power on 
the manufacturers' ratings of water required, and assuming 75 per 
cent efficiency on the wheels, the total power is 17,248 net horse- 
power, of which 16,683 net horsepower is within the limits of the city 
of Rochester. 

(10) The enlarged Erie Canal will require 80 cubic feet of water 
per second from Genesee River for every month of the navigation 
season except May, and in that month a mean of 177 cubic feet per 
second. 

(11) The present extreme low- water power of Genesee River at 
Rochester is 5,046 net horsepower, of which one-half, or 2,523 net 
horsepower, will be rendered very much less valuable to its owners 
because of the taking for the enlarged Erie Canal of 80 cubic feet per 
second in every month of the navigation season and 177 cubic feet 
per second in May. 

WATER STORAGE ON HUDSON RIVER. 

As noted in Part I of this paper, on page 33, Hudson River is divided 
at the Troy dam into the upper or water-power section and the lower 
or tidal portion. The proposed reservoirs are, as a matter of course, 
in the upper section, that above Troy. 

EARLY SURVEYS. 

The project for constructing storage reservoirs on the upper Hudson 
has been agitated for many years, the first surveys for this purpose 
having been made in 1874. In that year Prof. F. IST. Benedict con- 
ducted surveys, and in his report proposed an extensive system of res- 
ervoirs. The chief interest attaching to this report is the proposition 
on the part of Mr. Benedict to build storage reservoirs at Blue Moun- 
tain, Racket, Forked, Beach, and Long lakes, and divert the water 
stored on these several lakes from their natural drainage into Racket 
River, to the south, thus making them artificially tributary to Hud- 
son River. In proposing this diversion, Mr. Benedict apparentlj^ 
assumed that the State, in its sovereign capacity, could divert waters 
from one drainage basin to another without regard to the rights or 
wishes of the riparian owners. 

In addition to the lakes already enumerated, which are naturally 
tributary to Racket River, Mr. Benedict proposed to make reservoirs 
of the following lakes and ponds in the upper Hudson drainage area : 
Round Pond, Catlin Lake, Rich Lake, Harris Lake, Lake Henderson, 
Newcomb Lake, Lower Works reservoir, Chain Lakes, Goodenow 
Pond, Goodenow River reservoir, South Pond, Clear Pond, Slim 
Pond, Ackerman Pond, Perch Pond, Trout Pond, Lake Harkness, 
Shedd Lake, First Sergeant Pond, Third Sergeant Pond, Plumley 



126 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

Pond, Moose Pond, and Gary Pond. The total storage to be fur- 
nished by the entire system of reservoirs is placed at 18,419,781,600 
cubic feet. The total cost of the proposed reservoirs was placed by 
Mr. Benedict at about 1265,000, or, including the diversion canal and 
improvements at Long Lake, at a total of about $460,000. The dams 




Ftg. 1. — Map of drainage area of Hudson River above Glens Falls. 

proposed were to be constructed of timber, very much after the plan 
of the timber dams still constructed by the lumbermen in this region, 
as shown on PI. III.^ 

1 For further particulars of Mr. Benedict's reservoir system, see Report on a Survey of the 
Waters of the Upper Hudson and Racket Rivers in the Summer of 1874, with Reference to 
Increasing the Supply of Water for the Champlain Canal and Improving ihe Navigation of the 
Hudson River, by F. N. Benedict, Ass. Docs. (1875), Vol. I, No. 6, p. 85. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE> 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL 




A. LUMBERMAN'S DAM ON CEDAR RIVER 





i 




f^ ;.: -y^ ^fH- -,'ji-arm:- 


i 


i 




g 



7>' LUMBERMAN'S DAM ON INDIAN RIVER 



RAFTER] STORAGE ON HUDSON RIVER 127 

In 1874, when Mr. Benedict prepared his report, the demands for 
water upon Hudson River were far less extensive than at present, 
and even in 1882 the total water power of the stream was, according 
to the statistics of the Report on the Water Power of the United 
States, Tenth Census, only 12,894 horsepower, while in 1895 the total 
horsepower was 43,481. Taking into account additional wheels set in 
the last two years, as well as the extensive development of the Hud- 
son River Power Transmission Company now in progress 3 miles below 
Mechanicville, it is probable that early in 1898 there will be wheels 
set on Hudson River capable of furnishing, at full capacit}^ not far 
from 55,000 horsepower. This great development has led to a very 
strong demand in the last few years for increased flow during the 
low- water period. 

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS. 

In 1895 a survey of the upper Hudson Valley was authorized with 
the view of determining what lakes and streams may be improved, 
and the water stored and diverted, in order to provide for the 
enlargement of Champlain Canal; for restoring to the water of 
Hudson River at or below Glens Falls the water diverted therefrom 
for canal purposes, and for improving the navigation of the lower 
Hudson River. The Hudson River naturally divides into two sec- 
tions — the upper and the lower — at the Troy dam, which is the head 
of the lower or tidal section. The proposed reservoirs are all in the 
upper section, above Troy. 

When one considers the scope of the investigation it may be 
readily seen that the studies must necessarily be of rather wide 
range. Special consideration should be given the following topics: 

(1) The area of the several subdivisions of the drainage area, 
together with the locations and extent of the reservoir sites, and the 
total area from which the run-off can be controlled. 

(2) The rainfall and mean temperature of the tributary region, as 
well as its physical characteristics, the relative amounts of timber and 
cleared area, etc. 

(3) The actual run-off of the stream from the known area for a 
series of years, and a deduction therefrom by comparison Avith the 
rainfall and temperature records of the amount which maj^ be stored 
in the year of minimum rainfall; also the relation which the run-off in 
the year of minimum precipitation bears to what may be expected 
in the average year, and a deduction therefrom of the proper height 
of flow lines for full-capacity development. 

(4) The areas of the reservoirs and the losses therefrom b}^ evapo- 
ration which may be reasonably expected, with the amount of effect- 
ive storage which may be gained by the reservoir system when 
developed to full capacity. 

(5) The amount of water now diverted for the use of Champlain 



128 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

Canal, and the amount to be diverted for such use when the enlarge- 
ment is completed ; also the proper method of managing the system 
of reservoirs in order to secure the best results to the canal, the navi- 
gable section, and the water power. 

(6) The amount of water power now in use on the stream and the 
effect of the present and future diversion. 

(7) The regimen of the tidal section, and the effect of the unregu- 
lated fresh-water flow and of the construction of the system of 
impounding reservoirs. 

(8) The cost of the reservoirs and the relation which the actual cost 
bears to the amount of storage gained. This latter element deter- 
mines the commercial feasibility of the project. 

RESERVOIR SITES ON SACUNDAGA, MAIN HUDSON, AND SCHROON 

RIVERS. 

The surveys, so far as carried, indicate that economical reservoirs 
controlling the entire drainage area to full capacity in the year of 
minimum rainfall may be constructed in the Sacundaga, main Hud- 
son, and Schroon valleys, as shown in the following paragraphs. 

The Sacundaga River has, as already stated, a total drainage area 
above its mouth at Hadley of 1,040 square miles. The catchment 
areas of reservoir sites on Sacundaga River, in square miles, are as 
follows : 

Catchment areas of reservoir sites on Sacundaga River. 

Square miles. 

Lakes Pleasant and Sacundaga - 45 

Piseco Lake - 55 

Arietta flow.- _ 40 

Miscellaneous _. - 50 

Total -- 190 

The main Hudson or North River has a total drainage area above 
Hadley, not including Schroon River, of 1,092 square miles. Of this 
area the portions shown below may be developed to full capacity in 
the year of minimum rainfall : 

Catchment area of reservoir sites on main Hudson River. 

Square miles. 

Thirteenth Pond _ 14 

Chain Lakes 58 

Catlin Lake - 35 

Lakes Rich, Harris, and Newcomb, and the Goodenow flow 83 

Lake Henderson 18 

Lake Sanf ord and the Taha wus flow 67 

Boreas River and Boreas Pond _ 45 

Cedar River. _ 58 

Indian Lake 146 

Total... _.._ .._ 514 



RAFTER.] RESERVOIR SITES ON SCHROON RIVER. 129 

Schroon River has a total drainage area above its mouth of 550 
square miles. The topography of the Schroon area is such as to 
admit of two distinct lines of treatment — either to construct one large 
dam at Tumblehead Falls, about a mile below South Iloricon, or to 
construct a series of 16 to 18 small dams at various points in the area. 
In either case it is possible to control substantially the full flow of 
the 502 square miles above Tumblehead Falls, and the decision of 
which is better will turn chiefly on the question of relative cost, the 
estimate taking into account the fact that it Avill cost much more to 
operate a large number of resen^oirs than to operate one. 

Catchment area of small reservoirs on Schroon River. 

Square miles. 

Minerva Brook at Olmsteadville 43. 4 

HewettPond . 2.5 

Loon Lake.- 11.6 

Friend Lake : 4.9 

Elk Lake. -. 15.9 

Clear Pond 2.3 

New Pond 1.7 

Deadwater Pond _ 18.9 

Hammond Pond 11.4 

Dudley Pond 3.9 

Overshot Pond .._ 4. 9 

Paradox Lake.. _ 31.6 

Paragon Lake _ 5.6 

Crane Pond.. 7.2 

Pharaoh Lake. 8.3 

Brant Lake. 38.7 

Valentine Pond 6.7 

Schroon Lake at Starbuckville , 259. 2 

Total 478.7 

The area between Starbuckville and Tumblehead Falls not available 
with the system of small reservoirs is 23.3 square miles. 

The total controllable area of the upper Hudson, with the system of 
small reservoirs in the Schroon Valley, is as follows : 

Total catchment area of upper Hudson River. 

Square miles. 

Sacnn daga Valley 190 

Hudson above Hadley 514 

Schroon Valley 479 

Total.. 1,183 

With one large reservoir in Schroon Valley the catchment area is 
increased to 1,206 square miles. 

The system of small reservoirs outlined in the foregoing is estimated 
to store 15,330,000,000 cubic feet, at a cost of $1,172,500; hence the 



130 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

cost per million cubic feet stored becomes 176.48. These figures, 
however, do not take into account the annual cost of maintenance 
and operation, which may be placed at 130,000 per year, and capital- 
ized at 5 per cent is equivalent to a permanent investment of $600,000. 
Adding $600,000 to $1,172,500 gives a total permanent investment of 
$1,772,500. 

A general estimate of the cost of the single large reservoir in 
Schroon Valley shows that with a dam at Tumblehead Falls 59 feet 
in height there would be impounded 15,925,000,000 cubic feet. The 
preliminary estimate indicates a total cost of $840,000, and a later 
survey indicates about $1,000,000. The final revision of the estimate 
on completion of the investigation may show a somewhat larger figure 
than this. Even if the cost were to be $1,100,000, it would still be 
exceedingly cheap storage, the cost for 15,925,000,000 cubic feet being 
on this basis only $69.14 per million cubic feet stored. 

The dam at Tumblehead Falls would be located just below the out- 
let of Brant Lake, the elevation of the water surface of which is 801 
feet. The flow line of the proposed reservoir has been placed at an 
elevation of 840 feet, thus giving a depth of 39 feet over the surface 
of Brant Lake, a depth of 33 feet over the surface of Schroon Lake, 
and a depth of 20 feet over Paradox Lake. With the reservoir full 
or nearly full, there would be continuous navigation from the head of 
Brant Lake to the head of Paradox Lake of about 35 miles. The vil- 
lages of South Horicon, Bartonville, Starbuckville, and parts of Pot- 
ters vi lie and Chester are within the flow line of this reservoir. 

As another large reservoir to be built on the head waters of the 
Hudson, Indian Lake reservoir may be mentioned. As shown on 
page 128, the total controllable area at this lake is 146 square miles, 
which is capable of furnishing, in the year of minimum run-off, 
4,468,000,000 cubic feet. To provide this storage, a dam raising the 
water surface 23 feet above the present dam is required. The storage 
of the present dam 10 feet in height is estimated at 800,000,000 cubic 
feet. In the spring of 1897 a private company, known as the Indian 
River Company, was organized to construct the Indian River reser- 
voir. This company proposes to construct a masonry and concrete 
dam to the height of 23 feet above the old timber dam. The work is 
now in process of construction. The clearing of the margins of the 
lake includes the cutting of about 1,160 acres of timber. 

The Indian River Company was the owner of considerable land bor- 
dering on and in the vicinity of Indian Lake. In consideration of 
the transfer of townships 15 and 32 of the Totten and Crossfield pur- 
chase to the State forest preserve board, that board has, in effect, 
purchased the dam in process of construction, which, with the clear- 
ing of the margins, is estimated to cost about $100,000. The forest 
preserve board stipulated that the superintendent of public works 



RAFTER.] SITES ON HUDSON AND SACUNDAGA RIVERS. 131 

have the right to draw water from tlie reservoir when necessary for 
the supplj^ of Champlain Canal, the balance of the storage to he used 
hy the Indian River Company for increasing the low-water flow of 
Hudson River for the benefit of the Avater power. At a total cost 
of $100,000 the cost per million cubic feet stored becomes $22.38. 
Taking into account the quantit}^ of water stored at Indian Lake, this 
must be considered a very cheap reservoir.^ 

Piseco Lake may also be referred to as another large reservoir which 
may be constructed on the upper Hudson at low cost. It is estimated 
that a storage of 1,725,000,000 cubic feet may be made, at an expend- 
iture of $70,000, or at an average cost per million cubic feet stored 
of $40. 

Without going further into detail, the following maj^ be given as the 
approximate storage of the entire upper Hudson system, worked out 
to date.^ 

Approximate storage of upper Hudson River. 

Cubic feet. 

Storage of Sacundaga and main Hudson River drainage areas, not 
inclnding Boreas River reservoir, Boreas Pond, Indian Lake, and 

Piseco Lake 14,364,000,000 

Boreas River reservoir and Boreas Pond _ 1,111,000,000 

Indian Lake 4,468,000,000 

Piseco Lake .,_ 1,725,000,000 

Schroon Valley 15,925,000,000 

Hadley.. 4,000,000,000 

Conklinville 4,000,000,000 

Total. 45,593,000,000 

This storage is considered sufficient, in conjunction with the natural 
flow of the unregulated portion of the river, to maintain at Mechan- 
icville a flow of at least 4,500 cubic feet per second during the entire 
year. 

In addition to the reservoirs named above, the general investiga- 
tions indicate that there is, possibly, an opportunity to make a large 
reservoir on Sacundaga River by the erection of a dam about 20 feet 
in height at Conklinville, where there is a reach of river extending 24 
miles to North ville. The available storage of such a reservoir is taken 
at about 4,000,000,000 cubic feet. 

There is also an opportunity to construct on the main Hudson at 
Hadley, just above the mouth of the Sacundaga, another reservoir of 
about 4,000,000,000 cubic feet capacity, at a point where the natural 
conditions for constructing such a reservoir are considered very good. 
At the site of the iiroposed dam the river shows a granitic rock bottom 

» This dam was completed in 1898. 

2 For full details the reader is referred to the original reports on the upper Hudson storage 
surveys, in the Annual Reports of the State Engineer and Survej-or for the fiscal years ending 
September 30, 1895 and 1896. 



132 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

with precipitous banks nearly 40 feet in height and about 100 feet 
apart. The material for a permanent stone dam exists in the vicin- 
ity, with an opportunity to construct a wasteway over natural rock 
at one side. 

Inasmuch as all the storage except that of the Sacundaga area would 
pass through the Hadley reservoir, its construction would simplify 
the management of the system very greatly. In the summer season, 
as long as there is any storage above to be drawn upon, this reser- 
voir could be kept nearly full and just the right quantity drawn out 
from day to day to keep the river at the assumed flow of 4,500 cubic 
feet a second at Mechanicville. 

EFFECT OF PROPOSED STORAGE ON RIVER FLOW. 

The foregoing quantities of storage have been fixed upon on the 
basis that the water yield of the year of minimum stream flow will 
furnish a storage of at least 12 inches, the flow line of the reservoirs 
themselves being located with reference to holding back 13.5 inches. 
If, however, one examines the tables of run-off of the Hudson at 
Mechanicville, given in Part I of this paper, on page 82, and of pre- 
cipitation in the watershed, given on the next page, it is seen that 
much greater yields can be expected in an average year. From 
this point of view, it may be asked. Why not make the reservoirs 
somewhat larger than merely sufficient for the wants of the year of 
minimum flow and carry some water over from one year to another, 
thus more nearly attaining an absolute regulation of the river — not 
for a single year, but for a series of years? The chief objection to 
this method of procedure is that experience with other large reservoir 
systems is against other than a moderate development on this line, it 
having been repeatedly found that however high the flow line, reser- 
voirs are likely to be nearly empty at the beginning of the storage 
period of the minimum year. Experience indicates that the rainfall 
and stream flow move in cycles, there being in each cycle several 
successive years of flow above the average. The demands for water 
tend to increase during the years of plenty, until those in charge 
apparently forget there will ever be a deficiency. The best practice, 
therefore, is to locate the flow line with reference to about the minimum 
yield, thus forcing an economy in the use of water from the beginning. 
By proceeding in this way provision may be made for carrying over 
moderate quantities of water from the latter end of the year more 
effectually than in any other way. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL. 




A. THE GEORGE WEST PAPER MILL, ON HUDSON RIVER AT HADLEY, NEW YORK. 




J? THE HUDSON RIVER PULP AND PAPER COMPANY'S MILLS AT PALMER FALLS, 
ON HUDSON RIVER, NEW YORK. 



RAFTER.] 



EFFECT OF STORAGE ON RIVER FLOW. 



133 



Mean precipitatinn on llie upper Hudson iratershed. 
[In inches. ] 



Mouth. 



December . . . 

January 

February . . . 

March 

April 

May .-- 

June.- 

July.. 

August 

September . . 

October 

November .. 

Total . . 





cc 












c« 


>. 


fo 


a 


a; 


^ 


® 






< 


o 


2.71 


3.19 


2.75 


3.16 


2.49 


3.03 


2.72 


2.72 


2.80 


2.15 


3.62 


3.10 


17.09 


17.35 


4.07 


2.83 


4.29 


3.25 


3.96 


4.17 


12.32 


10.25 


3.43 


2.96 


3.58 


2.36 


3.08 


3.24 


10.09 


S.56 


39.50 


36.16 



c § >. 



(y 
§ 



is 



2.75 
3.00 
2.22 
2.24 
2.09 
3.05 

15.35 
2.89 
3.61 
4.21 

10.71 
3.00 
2.49 
3.56 
9.05 

35.11 



3.01 
3.03 
2.64 
2.50 
2.14 
3.14 

16. U7 
2.99 
3.53 
4.20 

10. 75 
3.13 
2.60 
3.26 
8.99 

36.22 



is 

4 
f 


;3 

1 

o 


4.31 


3.57 


3.36 


3.88 


2.83 


3.60 


2.94 


2.52 


2.02 


2.39 


3 17 


4 46 


18.63 


20. U2 


3.24 


3.88 


3.44 


3.83 


3.91 


5.07 


10.59 


12. 78 


3.51 


3. .57 


3.41 


3.06 


2.84 


3.46 


9.76 


10.09 


38.98 


43.29 



V 



"5 



2.14 
2.35 
2.43 

1.78 
1.91 
2.79 

13. UO 
3.42 
3.67 
2.85 
9.91, 
2.84 
3.29 
2.94 
9.07 

32. 4i 



2.91 
3.30 
2.86 
3.63 
2.93 
3.45 

19. OS 
4.20 
4.01 
3.14 

11.35 
2.87 
3.20 
3.33 
9.U9 

39.92 



xs S 

s 



2.36 
3.36 
2.61 
2.12 
3.36 
3.65 

17. U6 
4.66 
3.91 
3.98 

12.55 
3.27 
3.60 
3.29 

10.16 

40.17 



'C 


•a- 


o 
<5 • 


03 
o 
<5 


>. 


-,^ ^ 


'cS 


:Sa 


-3^ 




eg 




fe^ 


o 


2.78 


2.48 


2.69 


2.08 


2.06 


.1.42 


2.36 


1.74 


2.53 


2.13 


3.04 


3.47 


15. U6 


13.32 


4.29 


3.21 


4.21 


3.63 


3.66 


2.97 


12.16 


9.81 


3.08 


2.67 


3.56 


2.90 


2.46 


2.88 


9.11 


8.U5 


36.73 


31.58 



2.92 
2.99 
2.56 
2.48 
2.43 
3.38 

16.76 
3.67 
3.78 
3.79 

11.25 
3.12 
3.15 
3 11 
9.38 

37.39 



The figiires in the above table are obtained by averaging the results obtained at Albany from 
1825 to 1895; at Glens Falls, from 1879 to 1895: at Keene Valley, from 1879 to 1895; in western Mas- 
sachusetts, from 1887 to 1895; in Northern Plateau, from 1889 to 1895; at Lowville Academy, from 
1827 to 1848; at Johnstown Academy, from 1828 to 1845; at Cambridge Academy, from 1827 to 
1839; at Fairfield Academy, from 1828 to 1849; at G-ranville Academy, from 1835 to 1849; the mean 
of Albany, Glens Palls, and Keene Valley, from 1879 to 1895. Although the foregoing figures are 
here given in detail, later studies indicate that the mean rainfall of the Northern Plateau as 
defined by the State meteorological bureau is the best rainfall record to apply to the upper Hud- 
son area. 

The i)roposed regulation of Hudson River, as thus far iDlanned, is 
to be arranged on the basis of maintaining a flow of at least 4,500 
cubic feet i^er second at Mechanicville, where, as has been seen, the 
drainage area is 4,500 square miles, such a regulation being equivalent 
to producing at Mechanicville a constant flow of 1 second-foot per 
square mile. The relation of such regulated flow to the natural 
unregulated flow may be seen by studj-ing the diagrams of flow of 
Hudson River at Mechanicville given in Part I, on page 81. 

As regards the change in the regimen of tlie stream due to storage, 
it may be remarked that the reservoirs have been designed on the 
basis of giving to the stream at least 0. 5 inch on the drainage area per 
month. This amounts to 0.45 cubic foot per second per square mile 
for a month of thirty days; it is not, however, intended to state that the 
entire river will ever be as low as 0.45 cubic foot per second per square 
mile, or, what is the same thing, as low as 2,025 cubic feet per second 
at Mechanicville, but only that those tributary streams on which the 
storage reservoirs are located may be down to this figure. With 0.45 
IRR 25 3 



134 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II, [no. 25. 

cubic foot per second per square mile always flowing away from the con- 
trolled drainage area, the natural flow of the unregulated portion will 
usually furnish an additional amount sufficient to keep the river, 
during the storge period, up to nearly the assumed 4,500 cubic feet at 
Mechanicville ; or in case of extreme low water in winter other reser- 
voirs may be relied upon to assist in the manner alread}' pointed out. 

On the basis of 12 to 14 inches available storage, there may be, with 
0.5 inch per month alwaj-s going to the stream, a possible total require- 
ment for the year of from 15 to 18 inches. 

The table in Part I of this paper, on page 82, shows that the total 
flow for the water year 1895 was only 17.46 inches, or in that year 
there 'might have been a shortage if the reservoir system had been in 
operation of perhaps 0.5 inch. Any such shortage would necessa- 
rily have been carried over from the year 1894, when, in November, 
there was a run-off of 1.58 inches. .Allowing 0.5 inch to the stream, 
from the November rainfall alone there would have been 1.08 inches 
remaining in the reservoirs to be carried over to 1895. 

SUMMARY. 

In conclusion, it may be said that it is entirely feasible to construct 
a system of reservoirs in the upper Hudson Valley, and such system 
maj^ be designed with reference to the full capacity storage of at least 
1,300 square miles of area, or 47 per cent of the total area above Glens 
Falls. Such control would result in the material reduction of floods 
at Glens Falls and other points. 

The proposed total storage of 45,593,000,000 cubic feet would main- 
tain 4,500 cubic feet per second flow, as well as supply the other 
necessary demands, in the driest season of the gaging period. The 
discharge measurements show that whereas the minimum unregulated 
flow at Glens Falls is as low as 900 cubic feet per second for a monthly 
mean, with the storage carried out, the probable monthly mean flow 
at Glens Falls will be at least 3,000 to 3,600 cubic feet per second. 
The minimum regulated flow of 4,500 cubic feet per second at Mechan- 
icville will increase the low-water depth in Hudson River at Albany 
about 1.5 feet. 

The diversion of water for the use of Champlain Canal is an injury 
to the water power at Glens Falls and lower points on the river. 
Since water power is much cheaper than steam power, the taking of 
the water of the river away from the manufacturers is a serious 
matter. In the fourteen years from 1882 to 1895 the use of water 
power on Hudson River has increased from a total of 12,894 net horse- 
power in 1882 to 43,481 net horsepower in 1895, an increase of 237 per 
cent. 

The upper Hudson storage system is estimated to cost from |60 to 
$70 per million cubic feet stored, a sum considerably less than the 
cost of many other systems. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL. 




A. GLENS FALLS PAPER MILLS AT FORT EDWARD, NEW YORK. 




B. DAM OF THE HUDSON RIVER POWER TRANSMISSION COMPANY DURIN( 
CONSTRUCTION, OCTOBER, 1897. 



rafter] early power development at niagara falls. 135 
deahetjOpmext of avater powers. 

POWER DEVELOPMENT AT NIAGARA FALLS. 

The possibility of water-power development at Niagara Falls lias 
attracted attention for many years, the first utilization there having 
been made in 1725, when the French erected a sawmill near the point 
Avhere the Pittsburg Reduction Comi^any's upper works now stand for 
the purpose of supplying lumber for Fort Niagara. Between 1725 and 
the early j^ears of the present century little is known of the use made 
of Niagara Falls power further than that sawmills were in operation 
there during the whole period. In 1805, however, Augustus Porter 
built a sawmill on the rapids, and in 1807 Porter & Barton erected a 
gristmill. In 1817 John Witmer built another sawmill at Gill Creek, 
and in 1822 Augustus Porter built a gristmill along the rapids above 
the falls. From that year to 1885, when the lands along the river 
were taken for a State park, a considerable amount of power was 
developed by a canal which took water out of the river near the head 
of the rapids and followed along the shore nearly parallel with the 
bank of the river. Mills were built between this canal and the river, 
and a part of the 50-foot fall betwe^en the head of the rapids and the 
brink of the American Falls was thus utilized. A paper mill was 
built on Bath Island at an early date. 

In 1842 Augustus Porter, one of the principal mill ow^ners at 
Niagara Falls, proposed a considerable extension of the then exist- 
ing system of canals and races, and in January, 1847, in connec- 
tion with Peter Emslie, he i3ublished a formal plan which became 
the subject of negotiations with Walter Bryant and Caleb S. Wood- 
hull. An agreement was finally reached by which they were to 
construct a canal and receive a plot of land at the head of the 
canal, having a frontage of 425 feet on Niagara River, together with 
a right of way 100 feet wide for the canal along its entire length of 
4,400 feet, and about 75 acres of land near the terminus, having a 
frontage on the river below the falls of nearly a mile. The canal 
constructed under this agreement passes through what is now the 
most thickly settled part of the city of Niagara Falls. 

Ground was broken by Messrs. Bryant & Woodhull in 1853 and 
the work carried on for about sixteen months, when it was suspended 
for lack of funds. Nothing further was done until 1858, when Stephen 
Allen carried the work forward for a time; later, in 18G1, Horace H. 
Day took up the matter and completed a canal 36 feet wide, 8 feet 
deep, and 4,400 feet long, by which the water of the upper river was 
brought to a basin near the brink of the high bluff of the lower river 
and at an elevation of 214 feet above the lower river. Upon the margin 
of this basin various mills have been constructed, to the wheels of which 
water is conducted from the canal and discharged through the bluff 
into the river below. The first mill built on this hydraulic canal Avas a 
small gristmill, erected by Charles B. Gaskill in 1870 on the site of 
the present large flouring mill of the Cataract Milling Comjiany. 



136 



WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 



NIAGARA FALLS HYDRAULIC POWER AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 

In 1877 the hydraulic canal and all its appurtenances were pur- 
chased by Jacob F. Schoellkopf and A. Chesbrough, of Buifalo, who 
organized the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing 
Company, of which Mr. Schoellkopf is still president. The following 
is a list of companies either now supplied or to be supplied with power 
by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company. 

■^ower furnished by Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company. 

WATER power; 



Company. 


Business. 


Horse- 
power. 


Central Milling Co 


Flouring mill 

Paper and pulp 

Flouring mill . 

Paper and pulp 

Flour 


1,000 
500 
900 

2,000 

400 

200 

25 

2,500 


N. Wood Paper Co . 


Schoellkopf & Mathews . - 


Pettebone Cataract Manufacturing Co . 
Cataract Milling Co . 


Niagara Falls Waterworks 


Thomas E. McGarigle 


Machine shop 

Paper and pulp 


Cliff Paper Co . ... 


Total 


7,525 






ELECTRIC POWER. 


Pittsburg Reduction Co 

Niagara Falls and Lewiston R. R. Co. 
Cliff Paper Co 


Aluminum 


3,500 
400 
300 
200 
600 

150 

75 
100 

15 

15 

1,000 


Paper and pulp 


Lewiston and Youngstown R. R. Co 


Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric 

Light and Power Co. 
Niagara Falls Brewing Co ... 


Light and power _ . 


Rodwell Manufacturing Co 


Silver plating, etc, 


Sundry small customers in Niagara 

Falls. 
Francis Hook and Eye Co 


- 
Hooks and eyes _ _ . . 
Aluminum 


Kelly and McBean Aluminum Co 

The National Electrolytic Co 


Total 




6,355 






MECHANICAL POWER FURNISHED ON SHAFT. 


Oneida Co. , Limited ._ _ 


Silver-plated ware 

and chains. 
Check books 


300 
60 


Carter- Cr urn Co , . . . .... 


Total 


360 


Grand total 




14, 240 







POWER DEVELOPMENT AT NIAGARA FALLS. 



137 



Tlie contract made in 1852 between Augustus Porter, Walter 
Bryant, and Caleb J. WoodhuU only conveyed lands to the edge of 
the high bank of Niagara River, but did not include the talus or slope 
between the edge of the high bank and the river, and onl}^ granted 
the right to excavate 100 feet down the face of the bank. In 1852, 
when this contract was made, the use of water power under higher 
heads than 100 feet was, so far as the United States was concerned, 
entirel}^ unknown. Until recently the mills at Niagara Falls have 
not attempted to use more than 50 or 60 feet head; hence it resulted 
that although the capacity of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and 




Fig. 2.— General plan of developnDent of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing 

Company. 

Manufacturing Company's canal, as at first constructed, was sufficient, 
by development of the whole head, to produce about 15,000 horse- 
power, under the original agreements its capacity was exhausted when 
about 7,000 horsepower was produced. 

In 1892 the Niagara Falls Hj^draulic Power and Manufacturing 
Company began an enlargement and improvement of its canal. The 
plan adopted was to widen the original channel at one side to 70 feet, 
and make the new part 14 feet deep. This work is cut entirely 
through rock, below the water line. The enlargement of one side 
was completed in 1896. The canal as enlarged to date has a capacity 



138 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

of about 3,000 cubic feet per second, giving, under present conditions, 
a total of from 40,000 to 50,000 horsepower, the cross section being 
about 400 square feet. 

This company has a grant from the State of the right to draw from 
Niagara River as much water as can be taken through a canal 100 
feet wide and 14 feet deep. Work on further enlargement is now in 
progress, and it is expected, within a year or two, to have a total of 
about 675 feet area of water section. 

To July 1, 1897, about 100,000 cubic yards of material had been 
taken out at a cost of 1250,000, the average cuttings in the original 
canal from the surface of the ground to the surface of the water being 
about 8 feet. 

The development now in process by this company is verj^ interest- 
ing. A bulkhead is located at the top of the high bank with a fore 
bay back of it connected with the main hydraulic canal by a short- 
branch canal. From the fore bay a large penstock leads vertically 
down the cliff to a power house located directly on the shore of the 
lower river. In this power house horizontal turbine water wheels are 
placed, with dynamos directly connected, the power therefrom being 
transmitted either to the mills on the bluff above or to establishments 
at a distance. (See PL YII and fig. 2.) This company expects soon 
to transmit several thousand horsepower to Buffalo.^ Without taking 
into account the cost of water in the canal, the cost of the develop- 
ment of power in the way in which it is now being developed by this 
company may be placed at $35 per horsepower. 

NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY. 

The Magara Falls Power Company has developed an extensive 
plant on quite different lines from that of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic 
Power and Manufacturing Company. In 1883 to 1885 Thomas Ever- 
shed, who was at that time division engineer of the western division 
of the New York State canals, was called on to survey Niagara Falls 
Park Reservation, as provided for by act of the legislature. This led 
Mr. Ever shed to spend considerable time at Niagara Falls, during 
which he conceived the project of constructing a tunnel to begin at 
the level of the lower river and extend under the city of Niagara Falls 
for a distance of about 2^ miles. (See fig. 3.) This tunnel, as pro- 
posed, was to be generally parallel to the Niagara River, but at some 
little distance from it. At its head and at various points along the 
river from above Port Day it was proposed to construct branch canals 

1 For further details of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company, see 

(1) Power development of Niagara Falls, other than that of the Niagara Power Company, 
by W. C. Johnson: Trans. Engineers' Society of Western New York, Vol. I, No. 6 (Feb. 3, 1896); 

(2) Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company's new work, by Orrin E. 
Dunlap: Electrical Engineer, Vol. XX (Dec. 4, 1895); (3) Old hydraulic power plant at Niagara 
Falls transformed for electrical transmission, by Orrin R. Dunlap: Western Electrician, Vol. 
XIX (Dec. 5, 1896); (4) Pulp mill of the Cliff Paper Company of Niagara Fails, New York, by 
W. C. Johnson: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXII (Aug., 1894). 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL PURVE 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL. 














PENSTOCK OF THE NIAGARA FALLS HYDRAULIC POWER AND MANUFACTURING 

COMPANY. 



RAFTER.] 



NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY. 



139 



connecting with the river and through whicli watei- eoukl he taken, to 
be discharged upon turbine Avlieels x^laced in vertical wheel pits and 
connected with the tunnel at various points. 

The Niagara River Hydraulic Tunnel, Power and Sewer Company 
of Niagara Falls was incorporated in 1886 for the purpose of (con- 
structing and oi^erating, in connection with Niagara River, a hydraulic 
tunnel or subterranean sewer for public use in the disposal of sewage 
and drainage and for furnishing hydraulic power for manufacturing 
purposes in the town of Niagara Falls. In consideration of the public 
service of sewerage and drainage, this company Avas authorized to 
acquire land hy condemnation. 

The general plan of development is described b}' Mr. Evershed in 




Fig. 3.— Map of Niagara Falls and vicinity, showing location of the great tunnel. 
(From Gassier 's Magazine, Vol. VIII, p. 183.) 

a report made July 1, 1896, in which he states that the main tunnel 
would begin at a point on the lower river immediately north of the 
State reservation, with its mouth as low as high water below the falls 
would permit. From this point to half a mile above Port Day it should 
have a rise of 1 foot in 100, or 52.8 feet per mile, and a section above 
Port Day equivalent to a circle 24 feet in diameter, the tunnel gradu- 
ally diminishing in size in accordance with the number of mills emptj^- 
ing tail-water into it, until at the upper end it Avould have the same 
area of cross section as the connecting cross tunnels.^ 

The matter remained in abeyance until 1889, when the Niagara Falls 

^ See pamphlet, Water Power at Niagara Falls, prospectus of the Niagara River Hydraulic 
Tunnel, Power, and Sewer Company (1886). 



1 40 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

Power Company was organized to carry out, in effect, Mr. Everslied's 
plan. The actual work of construction was undertaken by the Cata- 
ract Construction Companj^, composed of William B. Rankine, Francis 
Lynde Stetson, Pierpont Morgan, Hamilton McK. Twombly, Edward 
A. Wickes, Morris K. Jesup, Darius Ogden Mills, Charles F. Clarke, 
Edward D. Adams, Charles Lanier, A. J. Forbes-Leith, Walter Howe, 
John Crosby Brown, Frederick W. Whirtridge, William K. Vander- 
bilt, George S. Bowdoin, Joseph Larocque, John Jacob Astor, and 
Charles A. Sweet. This company has modified the original plans in 
some particulars, although the general scheme has been carried out. 

The plan finally determined on comprised a surface canal 250 feet 
in width at its mouth on the river, IJ miles above the falls, extending 
inwardly 1,700 feet, with an average depth of 12 feet, and computed 
to furnish water sufficient for the development of about 120,000 horse- 
power. The masonry walls of this canal are pierced at intervals with 
inlets, guarded by gates. Some of these are used to deliver water to 
tenants who construct their own wheel pits and set their own wheels, 
while 10 of them are arranged on one side of the canal for the purpose 
of delivering water to the wheel pit of the Niagara Falls Power Com- 
pany's power station, where dynamos, placed at the top of turbine 
vertical shafts, generate electricity for transmission. The wheel pit 
at the power station is 178 feet in depth and connected with the main 
tunnel by a short cross tunnel. The main tunnel as carried out has 
a maximum height of 21 feet and a width of 18.82 feet, making a net 
section of 386 square feet. The slope of this tunnel is 6 feet to the 
thousand. 

The most careful consideration was given to the subject of the tur- 
bines to be used, as well as to the question of power transmission. 
In 1890 Edward D. Adams, who was then president of the company, 
established an International Niagara Commission, with power to offer 
$20,000 in prizes. This commission consisted of Sir William Thomson 
(now Lord Kelvin), Dr. Coleman Sellers, Lieut. Col. Theodore Turre- 
tini. Prof. E. Mascart, and Prof. W. C. Unwin. Inquiries concerning 
the best-known methods of development and transmission of power in 
England, France, Switzerland, and Italy were made, and competitive 
plans were received from twenty carefully selected engineers and 
manufacturers of power plants in England, Europe, and America. 
These plans were submitted to the commission, which awarded prizes 
to those considered worthy. The most important result was the 
selection of the designs of Faesch and Piccard, of Geneva, for tur- 
bines computed to yield 5,000 horsepower each. Three wheels have 
been built from these designs and are now in place and regularly 
operated. 

Without going into details of the electrical work, it may be stated 
that the Niagara Falls Power Company adopted the two-phase alter- 
nating current system as best adapted to its work. In the dynamos 
employed the field magnet revolves instead of the armature. As 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL. VIM 




A. POWER HOUSE OF THE NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY. 




B. OUTLET OF TUNNEL OF THE NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY 



RAFTER.] 



NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY. 



141 



advised b}^ the company's electrical engineer, Prof. George Foi'bes, of 
London, three such dynamos, of 5,000 liorsepower eacli, constructed 
by the Westinghouse Company, of Pittsburg, have been installed. 
During the summer of 189G a transmission line was constructed from 
Niagara Falls to Buffalo, and since November of that year some of the 
street railways in Buffalo have been operated electrically by power 
from Niagara Falls. 

According to a statement of William B. Rankine, secretary of the 
Cataract Construction Company, the power furnished or conti'acted 
for by the Niagara Falls Power Company July 1, 1897, was as follows: 



Power furnished by the Niagara Falls Poiver Company. 
HYDRAULIC POWER. 



Company. 


Business. 


Horse- 
power. 


Niagara Falls Paper Company _ 


Paper 


7,200 


ELECTRIC POWER. 


Pittsburg Reduction Company 

The Carborundum Company _ . . 


Aluminum 

Abrasives . . _ 


3, 050 

1,000 

1,075 

500 

500 
400 
300 
250 

1,000 

4.000 

4.000 

1,000 

3.000 

1,000 

45 

25 

400 

7,200 

14, 545 

5, 000 

26, 745 


Acetylene Light, Heat, and Power Company, 
Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light 

and Power Company. 
Walton Ferguson - 

Niagara Electro-Chemical Company 

Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Railway. 
Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge Rail- 
way Company, a 
Buffalo Street Railway Company 


Calcium carbide 

Local lighting 

Chlorate of potash 

Peroxide of sodium 

Local railway . . 


.- do 


22-mile transmission _ . 

Calcium carbide 

Soda ash 


Acetylene Light, Heat, and Power Company h 
Mathieson Alkali Works c 

Buffalo Street Railway Company 




Buffalo General Electric Company d 

The Carbornndum Company^ 


Lighting 

Abrasives 


Niagara Falls Water Works Company 




Power City Foundry and Machine Companv 




Albright and Wilson 


Electro-chemicals 


Total hydraulic power sold at Niagara Falls. 
Total electric power sold at Niagara Falls . . 




Total electric power sold at Buffalo 




Total 


• 







a All from October 1, 1896. 

bFrom. delivery, say, November 1, l!S97 

c From June 1, 1897. 



d From November 15, 1897 
e From June 1, 1897. 



142 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

Recapitulation of the total power in use or furnished from Niagara 
Falls January 1, 1898, shows the following amounts: 

Hydraulic power: Horsepower. 

Niagara Falls Power Company . _ _ 7, 200 

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company . _ _ 7, 525 

Electric power: 

Niagara Falls Power Company 19, 545 

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company 6, 355 

Mechanical power: 

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company 360 

Total , 40,985 

The large demand for power from the Niagara Falls Power Com- 
pany has necessitated the enlargement of the wheel pit and power 
house to more than three times their present capacity. The work upon 
this enlargement, sufficient to provide 35,000 additional horsepower, 
has been in progress since June, 1896, and is now approaching com- 
pletion. With the completion of this extension the Niagara Falls 
Power Company will have available 50,000 horsepower; a portion of 
the increased power was ready for delivery January 1, 1898. 

The 50,000 horsepower developed when the present extension is com- 
pleted represents but one-half of the capacity of the present tunnel. 
This company has further secured the right of way for a second dis- 
charge tunnel, so that when the demand for power shall render it 
necessary the present plant may be duplicated, thus furnishing 200,000 
horsepower in all. In addition to this large development on the Amer- 
ican side, the Canadian Niagara Power Company, an allied corpora- 
tion, now holds from the Canadian government an exclusive franchise 
granting to it the right to develop on the Canadian side at least 250,000 
horsepower. The total possible power proposed to be developed in 
the future at Niagara Falls is about as follows : ^ 

Power proposed to he developed at Niagara Falls. 

Horsepower. 

Niagara Falls Power Company's present tunnel _._ 100, 000 

Niagara Falls Power Company's second tunnel 100,000 

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company's canal 150, 000 

Canadian Niagara Power Company's tunnels . 250, 000 

Total 600,000 

The developments now in progress at Niagara Falls are being car- 
ried out on very broad lines and probably furnish the best examples 
of modern hydraulic work. They certainly lead so far as the 

1 For an interesting discussion as to the effect of diverting large quantities of water from 
Niagara River for power purposes, see report of Clemens Herschel. made December 13, 1895, on 
the Diversion of Water from the Niagara River for Power Purposes by the Niagara Falls 
Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company and by the Niagara Falls Power Company, and 
the Unimportant Effect of such Diversion upon the River. Mr. Herschel bases his discussion on 
the data of the Lake Survey of an ordinary and usual flow of 265,000 cubic feet per second. Rea- 
soning irom this premise he concludes that even when 300,000 or 400,000 horsepower are in use 
the effect upon the depth of the river will be insignificant. 



RAFTER.] POWER DEVELOPMENT AT MASSENA. 143 

United States is concerned. A comi)lete account of both works, .giv- 
ing details of all the engineering features, would make a large-sized 
monograph. From this point of view it is only possible to cite some 
of the sources of information.^ 

PO^A/'ER PLANT AT MASSENA, ON ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 

Among the large power developments now under constructi n in 
the State of New York is that at Massena, on St. Lawrence and 
Grass rivers. According to statements made by John Bogart, con- 
sulting engineer, the power j)lant now under construction at Mas- 
sena includes the excavation of a canal leading from St. Lawrence 
River to Grass River, a distance of 3 miles, the building of a 
power house, the installation of fifteen 5,000-horsepower electric gen- 
erators, and the necessary equipment of turbine water wheels. The 
furnishing of the electric apparatus has been awarded to the West- 
inghouse Electrical and Manufacturing Company, and is said to be 
the largest contract for electric apparatus ever placed. 

The plan of development adopted at Massena is to divert a portion 
of the water of St. Lawrence River from its natural channel bj^ means 
of a canal, carrying it 3 miles across to Grass River, where, after 
operating turbines, it will pass by way of Grass River to the St. 
Lawrence at a point lower downstream. Just below where the 
canal takes water from St. Lawrence River, Long Sault Rapids are 
located, which have a fall of about 50 feet. Grass River runs nearly 
parallel to the St. Lawrence for several miles, flowing into the St. 
Lawrence a short distance below the foot of Long Sault Rapids. To 
the south of St. Lawrence River, and between it and the valley of 
Grass River, there is a comparatively level plateau. 

The average width of Grass River from its mouth to above where 
the power canal will intersect it is from 250 to 300 feet, and its water 
surface, for this portion, is substantially on a level with the St. Law- 
rence below the rapids; hence the , surf ace of Grass River at the 
point where the power canal strikes the stream is from 45 to 50 feet 
below the surface of the St. Lawrence at the head of the canal. The 
power station will be located on the north bank of Grass River, the 
tail-water dropping into that stream, which thus becomes, in effect, 
a tailrace for this power development. Making some allowance for 
increased depth of water in Grass River between the power station 
and its mouth, when receiving the tail water, and also some allowance 

1 The main facts in regard to the plant of Niagara Falls Power Company as herein embodied 
have been furnished by L. H. Groat, secretary of the company. For more extended informa- 
tion the reader is referred to (1) Cassier's Magazine, Vol. VIII (July, 1895), where may be found 
an account of nearly every phase of the Niagara Falls Power Company's development; (2) The 
Electrical World,Vol. XXX (Oct. 23, 1897), which may be consulted for a description of the exten- 
sion of the wheel pit now in process; (3) Niagara Falls publication of the Niagara Falls Chamber 
of Commerce, issued in 1897; (4) the various numbers for 1897 of Greater Buffalo, a monthly 
publication devoted to promoting the prosperity of Buffalo and Niagara Falls Engineering 
News and other technical journals may also be consulted. 



144 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

for inclination of the water surface of the head canal, it is thought that 
an absolutely permanent power of about 40 feet will be obtained. 

The work of constructing the head canal and preliminary work 
on the foundations of the power house are now under way. It is 
expected that the work will be completed in 1899. The canal will be 
250 feet wide and 25 feet deep, this capacity being assumed as suffi- 
cient to furnish 150,000 horsepower. The work is being carried out 
by the St. Lawrence Power Company, which was organized under the 
laws of the State of New York, with a capital stock of 16,000,000. 
According to statements made, a large amount of power has been 
taken by an English syndicate, which intends to use it chiefly for 
electro-chemical manufacturing. 

Il^LAKD WATERWAYS. 

TRADE AND COMMERCE OF HUDSON RIVER. 

The importance of Pludson River as a great waterway of commerce 
is shown by Mr. Charles G. Weir in a report made in 1890. Aside 
from its own local trade the river absorbs all the traffic of the Erie, 
Champlain, Delaware, and Hudson canals, besides the great coal trade 
of the Pennsylvania Coal Company at Newburg and the Erie coal 
trade at Piedmont. The average season of navigation of the river is 
two hundred and forty days. The two principal industries on Hudson 
River, which add materially to the total tonnage, are ice and brick. 
The capacity of the ice houses on and near the river exceeds 4,000,000 
tons, and the amount annually harvested is about 3,500,000 tons. The 
bricks manufactured on the river exceed 850,000,000. 

The following statistics include the tonnage received at all points 
above Spuyten Duyvil Creek, and of the local shipment between 
points on the river. That shipped is credited only to the points from 
which it was shipped, no entry being made to the total tonnage of the 
amount received at local points from other local points. The total 
tonnage also includes all through freights shipped from points up the 
river that passed the mouth of Spuyten Duyvil Creek going south. 

Tonnage and value of commerce on Hudson River above Spuyten Duyvil Greek. 

Total tonnage of all shipping points on Hudson River during 1889, 

. not including the tonnage coming through State canals (tons) _ ._ 15, 033, 309 

Value of same $378,196,094 

Total tonnage coming to and leaving tide water through State canals, 

1889 (tons) - 3,592,437 

Value of same $108,000,000 

Increase of same over tonnage, 1888 (tons) 326, 466 

Grand total tonnage of Hudson River, including tonnage through 

State canals (tons) 18, 582, 596 

Value of same.-.. $485,733,094 

Number of transportation companies for passengers or freight, not 

including steamboats or pleasure boats 30 

Total number of passengers carried, 1889 5, 000, 000 



RAFTER.] EARLY HISTORY OF STATE CANALS. 145 

In regard to the foregoing statement of tlie capacity of ice liouses 
on and near the river, as made by Mr. Weir, it may be remarked 
that Charles C. Brown, in a report on Hudson River, which appears 
in the Eleventh Annual Report of the State Board of Health, gives a 
list of ice houses on Hudson River, with their capacity in 1889. Ac- 
cording to Mr. Brown, the total capacity in that year was 2,908,000 
tons, while the crop harvested frequently exceeds this quantit}^ by 
500,000 tons, Avhicli is stacked up outside and disposed of before the 
warm season begins. Mr. Weir's statistics, as stated, include the 
capacity of ice houses on and near Hudson River, while Mr. Brown's 
include only those actually on the river, which probably explains the 
apparent discrepancy in the statistics. 

STATE CANALS. 
EARLY HISTORY. 

The idea of a water communication between Hudson River and 
the West via the valley of the Mohawk had been a favored one with 
the statesmen of New York for mau}^ j^ears previous to the beginning 
of the present century; the early projects, however, were altogether 
with reference to improvement of the natural Avater channels and did 
not include the construction of artificial channels further than such 
channels might be necessary as connecting links. Thus Sir Henry 
Moore, governor of the colony of New York, proposed, in December, 
1768, an improvement of the navigation of the Mohawk River at Little 
Falls by a sluice on the plan then used on the Languedoc Canal in 
France. 

In 1788 Elkhannah Watson proposed to establish a water communi- 
cation from Hudson River and Lake Ontario by way of Oneida Lake, 
Oneida River, and Oswego River, his plan being to connect Wood 
Creek with Mohawk River by a canal and to improve the Mohawk 
with locks. 

In January, 1791, Governor George Clinton, in an address to the 
legislature, urged the necessity of improving the natural water chan- 
nels in order to facilitate communication with the frontier settle- 
ments. Following this address, in February of the same year, a joint 
committee was appointed to inquire what obstructions in the Hudson 
and Mohawk rivers it would be proper to remove. As the result of 
this inquiry, an act was passed March 24, 1791, authorizing the com- 
missioners of the land office to explore and survey the gi'ound from 
Mohawk River at Fort Stanwix (now Rome) to AVood Creek with 
reference to constructing an artificial channel, and also to survey 
Mohawk and Hudson rivers for improvement by locks and to estimate 
the cost of the same. A sum not exceeding $500 w^as api^ropriated to 
pay the expense of such survey. 

At that time the channel of commerce was by the Mohawk from 
Albany to Fort Stanwix in boats of about 5 tons burden. Going west 



146 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

these boats carried from 1^ to 2 tons and on the easterly trip 5 tons. 
From Fort Stanwix there was a portage of 2 miles across the flats to 
Wood Creek, whence the course lay into Oneida Lake and River, and 
from thence into Seneca and Oswego rivers to Lake Ontario; or, from 
points farther west, up Seneca River to Lakes Cayuga and Seneca. 
At that time it cost from $75 to 1100 per ton for transportation from 
Seneca Lake to Albany. The time occupied in going from Albany to 
Seneca Lake was twenty-one days, and in returning eight days. 

The commissioners appointed under the act of March, 1791, were 
Elkhannah Watson, Gen. Phillip Schuyler, and Goldsborrow Bayner. 
On the 3d of January, 1792, the commissioners reported the cost of 
improving the route from Albany to Seneca Lake by locks and canals 
at 1200,000, whereupon the legislature passed an act March 30, 1792, 
incorporating the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, for the 
purpose of opening navigation by locks from Hudson River to Lakes 
Ontario and Seneca, and the Northern Inland Lock Navigation Com- 
pany, charged with performing a like service from Hudson River to 
Lake Champlain. The capital stock of each company consisted of 
1,000 shares of $25 each, but the companies were afterwards allowed 
a capital stock of 1300,000 and an increase of the same from time to 
time. George Washington, the original promoter of canals in the 
United States, was the first president of the Western Inland Lock 
Navigation Company. 

In March, 1795, an act was passed directing the State treasurer 
to subscribe 200 shares to these companies, of $50 each. State aid 
was again granted by an act passed in April, 1796, by which the 
Western Inland Lock Navigation Comjjany was loaned 137,500, and 
a mortgage taken by the State on the company's property at Little 
Falls. In that year a route was opened from Schenectady to Seneca 
Falls for boats carrying 16 tons. The locks at Little Falls were first 
built of wood, then of brick, and finally of stone; the remains of the 
latter are said still to exist. Dividends were paid for a number of 
years on the stock of the company making these improvements. The 
tariff levied for a barrel of flour carried 100 miles was 52 cents, and 
for a ton of goods, 15.75. 

Finally New York entered upon its era of inland- water improve- 
ments under the auspices of the State itself. On April 15, 1817,^ an 
act was passed entitled ' An act respecting navigable communication 
between the great eastern and northern lakes and the Atlantic Ocean," 
in which it was provided that whenever in the opinion of the canal 
commissioners it should be for the interests of this State that all the 
interest and title in law and equity of the Western Inland Lock Nav- 
igation Company shall be vested in the people of this State, it should 

1 The full authority I'or the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals may be found in 
two acts, the first being chapter 337 of the laws of 1816, passed April 17, 1816; the second being 
chapter 263 of the laws of 1817, passed April 15, 1817. There is more or less confusion of these 
two dates in early canal literature. 



RAFTER.] EARLY HISTORY OF STATE CANALS. 147 

be lawful for the canal coininissioners to pass a resolution to that 
effect. The act then provides a procedure for taking the property of 
this company after the passage of such a resolution by the canal com- 
missioners. Following this act the rights of the company were soon 
transferred to the State, and the property operated for two or three 
yesLvs thereafter under State auspices. In 1821 the State collected 
the sum of 1450.56 for tolls charged from Rome to the lower lock at 
Little Falls on account of transportation over the route formerly con- 
trolled by the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company. 

Chapter 144 of the laws of 1813 incorporated the Seneca Lock Nav- 
igation Company for the purpose of constructing a canal from Cayuga 
Lake to Seneca Lake. The rights of this company were purchased 
by the State, pursuant to chapter 271 of the laws of 1825. The two 
companies, the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company and the 
Seneca Lock Navigation Company, may be considered the forerunners 
of Erie Canal. 

About 1100,000 was expended by the Northern Inland Lock Navi- 
gation Company on locks around the falls at Cohoes and for their 
imi^rovement, all of which proved a total loss, the rights of the com- 
pany being finally transferred to the State before navigation from 
Hudson River to Lake Champlain was actually opened. 

The amount expended by the Western Inland Lock Navigation 
Company up to December, 1804, was 1367,743, which was increased 
to $480,000 in 1813, and to a total of 1560,000 before the works were 
finally transferred to the State. The mistake of first constructing 
wooden locks proved a severe loss to the company, as all the original 
locks at Little Falls, German Flats, and Rome rotted away in about 
six years. The facilities afforded by these companies were undoubt- 
edly inadequate to the demands of the rai)idly growing western sec- 
tion, and accordingly an active agitation finally began for some more 
extended means of communication. 

The early work was, as we have seen, entirely in the direction of 
the improvement of natural channels, the extent of artificial channels 
for the whole route from Hudson River to Seneca Lake being only 15 
miles. About 1803, however, the project for an artificial canal con- 
necting Lake Erie with tide water in the Hudson was broached by 
Gouverneur Morris. In 1807 Jesse Hawley wrote a series of arti- 
cles on the subject, and in 1808 the legislature directed the surveyor- 
general, Simeon De Witt, to make a survey of such a route. This 
survey was made by James Geddes, who reported on January 20, 1809. 
In 1810 the legislature appointed commissioners to prosecute further 
examinations. This commission made its first report in March, 1811. 
After discussing the route as proposed, from Hudson River to Lake 
Ontario, it recommended the inland route to Lake Erie with a direct 
descent from Lake Erie to Hudson River. Following this report a 
bill was j)assed by the legislature reappointing the commissioners of 



148 WATER RESOUKCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

the previous year, with the addition of Robert R. Livingston and 
Robert Fulton, and extending the powers of the commissioners and 
adding to the appropriation for its work. The war of 1812 came on, 
however, and the canal project was temporarily dropped until 1B16, 
when De Witt Clinton presented a memorial to the legislature from 
the city of New York urging action toward the construction of the 
canal. Finally the act of April 15, 1817, was passed creating a per- 
manent board of canal commissioners,^ which entered at once upon 
its duties, and providing for the construction of artificial navigation 
from Lake Erie to tide water on Hudson River, and also from Lake 
Champlain to tide water on the Hudson. The dimensions of the pro- 
posed canals were fixed by the commissioners as follows : For Erie 
Canal a bottom width of 28 feet, surface width 40 feet, and depth 4 
feet, with locks 90 feet long and 15 feet wide; for Champlain Canal 
a bottom width of 20 feet, surface width 30 feet, and depth 3 feet, with 
locks 75 feet long and 10 feet wide. 

Ground was broken for Erie Canal at Rome, July 4, 1817, and the 
section fromUtica to Seneca River completed October 22, 1819, a boat 
passing from Rome to Utica on that day. Champlain Canal was 
opened in part for navigation November 24, 1819. The route for 
Erie Canal from Seneca River west was also explored in 1819, and 
the final location, from Seneca River to Rochester, made in 1821. 
The principal engineers were James Geddes, Benjamin Wright, and 
Canvass White. 

The annual report of the canal commissioners, dated January 31, 
1818, gives details of the system adopted for the construction of the 
canal. They state that they had decided to complete the middle sec- 
tion first, 58 miles of which were put under contract during the year 
1817, this portion being wholly on the summit level. The whole labor 
performed in 1817 was equal to the completion of 15 miles. In indi- 
cation of the eas}^ character of the work, the commissioners state that 
three Irishmen finished 3 rods of canal in 4 feet cutting in five and 
one-half days, and that on the 58 miles under contract only half a 
mile required puddling. 

The engineer's original estimate of the cost of the middle section, 
completed in 1819, was $1,021,851. The actual cost was 11,125,983. 
This increase, as stated by the commissioners, was due to change of 
prism and structures. 

While the State canals were in progress the Seneca Lock Naviga- 
tion Company, authorized by chapter 144 of the Laws of 1813, had 
been engaged in constructing a canal between Seneca and Cay.uga 
lakes, including a series of locks at Seneca Falls. On June 14, 1818, 
a loaded boat from Schenectady, 16 tons burden, passed the newly- 
constructed locks at Seneca Falls. Along Mohawk River the passage 

1 The permanent board of canal commissioners of 1817 included the following men: De Witt 
Clinton, president; Stephen Van Rensselaer, Samuel Young, Joseph Ellicott, and Myron Holley, 
their appointment having been first authorized by the act of April 17, 1816. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEV 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 25 PL. IX 




A. ERIE CANAL AT BUFFALO, NEW YORK 




B. BLACK ROCK GUARD LOCK ON ERIE CANAL 



RAFTER.] EARLY HISTORY OF STATE CANALS. 149 

of boats of this size was effected through the locks of the Western 
Inlaud Lock Navigation Company, Erie Canal not being open for 
navigation at that date. The locks at Seneca Falls cost $G0,000. The 
toll charged during 1818 Avas equivalent to 9 cents per ton per mile. 

Champlain Canal was, as stated, opened for navigation November 
24, 1819, from the Hudson at Fort Edward to Lake Champlain. The 
estimated cost of this section was $250,000, but on account of chang- 
ing its dimensions to the same size as Erie Canal the revised estimate 
amounted to $833,000. The canal Avas finally completed from Lake 
Champlain to Albany on September 10, 1823. 

Work on Erie Canal proceeded during the jesLva from 1820 to 1825, 
in the former year 94 miles being in operation and in the latter 363. 
It was finally completed from Alban}^ to Black Rock on October 26, 

1825, on w^hich day the first boat ascended the Lockport locks and 
passed through the mountain ridge into Lake Erie. Uninterrupted 
naAagation was thus obtained from that lake to the Atlantic Ocean for 
boats of an average of about 40 tons burden. The event was made a 
gala day the whole length of the canal. 

The construction of Erie Canal was due to the unbounded perse- 
verance and genius of one man — Governor De Witt Clinton — who, 
when one studies the early history of Erie Canal, stands forth as the 
colossal figure of the enterprise. 

The total expenditure on Erie and Champlain canals to January 1, 

1826, was 19,474,373.14, from which should be deducted for pay of 
engineers and commissioners, the acquisition of water rights, land 
damages, the construction of feeders, repairs, Black Rock Harbor, 
lowering Onondaga outlet, Salina and Onondaga side cut, Waterford 
and Troy side cuts, Troy dam, and Glens Falls feeder, the sum of 
$1,621,274. Hence the actual cost of construction of the canal proper 
was $7,853,099, which, on the aggregate length of 433 miles, equals 
$18,136 per mile, or, taking into account the various extensions 
enumerated and the engineering as necessar}^ items of expenditure, 
the original cost per mile of the Erie and Champlain canals may be 
placed at $21,881 per mile. 

Between 1825 and 1833 work was begun on a number of lateral 
canals — as, for instance, Oswego Canal, begun in 1826 and completed 
in 1828; Cayuga and Seneca Canal, begun in 1827 and completed in 
1829; Chemung Canal, begun in 1831 and completed in 1832, and 
Crooked Lake Canal, begun in 1831 and completed in 1833. The total 
cost of all the canals, including interest on loans up to March 23, 1833, 
was $11,460,066.77. 

Chenango Canal was begun in 1833. The total amount expended 
on all the canals, including original construction, extensions, main- 
tenance, repairs, and interest on loans, to the end of 1834 was 
$13,798,438, and the total amount of tolls received from 1820 to 1834, 
inclusive, was $10,000,730.97 — that is to say, at the end of ten years 
IRR 25 4 



150 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

from the original completion of Erie Canal the amount returned to the 
State was nearly 78 per cent of the total cost to that date. This fact 
is of the greatest interest because it indicates that from the very 
beginning the New York State canal system was operated as a purely 
business enterprise. It is clear, then, that in reality the State of New 
York, in constructing its internal navigation system, went into the 
transportation business; by that statement it is meant that the State 
managed the affairs of the canals precisely as a private company 
would have managed them— that is, the State built its canal system 
and levied as heavy tolls as the articles transported would stand. 

By way of illustrating how thoroughly the State was in the trans- 
portation business and on exactly the same basis as transportation 
companies, it may be cited that in 1830 the legislature sent a commu- 
nication to the commissioners of the canal fund asking if it were not 
possible to increase the rate of toll on many of the articles trans- 
ported, and stating that it seemed necessary, in order to meet all the 
interests involved, that the canals yield somewhat greater revenue. 
The commissioners replied to this communication at length, giving 
in detail the amount of toll levied on different articles transported, 
and finally concluded with the statement that it would be impossible 
to increase the tolls materially, because the articles transported were 
at that time taxed all they would stand. If the rate of toll were made 
materially greater, many articles would not be transported on the 
canals, but would go by other channels, as by St. Lawrence River 
and by the Great Lakes. The State would thus lose the benefit 
derived from carrying them. 

About 1833 to 1835 railroads began to attract attention as means of 
transportation, and in 1835 John B. Jervis, Holmes Hutchinson, and 
Frederick C. Mills, who were the principal canal engineers of that 
day, were instructed to report on the relative cost of transportation 
on canals and railroads. In an introduction to their report by Will- 
iam C. Bouck and Michael Hoffman, canal commissioners, it is stated 
that it will not be difficult to show that the expense of transportation 
on railroads is materially greater than on canals. But in addition to 
this there were other important considerations in favor of canals : 

(1) A canal may be compared to a common highway on which every 
man can be the carrier of his own property, therefore creating the 
most active competition, and thus reducing the expense of trans- 
portation to the lowest rates. The farmer, merchant, and manu- 
facturer can avail themselves of the advantages of carrying their own 
product to market in a manner best comporting with the interest of 
each individual. 

(2) Much of the property carried on the canals is carried by trans- 
portation companies, although the largest portion is carried by indi- 
viduals and small associations. The individual who becomes the 



RAFTER.] GROWTH AND DECLINE OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. 151 

carrier of his own product has the advantage of pa3ing nearly one- 
half of all the expense of transportation in the i-egular course of his 
business, and the cash disbursements do not often much exceed the 
payment of the tolls. To the farmer the profits on return freight, in 
many instances, give a full indemnity for the expense of taking his 
cargo to market. On railroads, on the other hand, the proprietors 
must necessarily be the carriers. 

A fixed popular belief in the two principles laid down by Messrs. 
Bouck and Hofl'man in their introduction to the transportation report 
of 1835 has been the cause of a great deal of mistaken policy in the 
State of New York. For instance, nearly every year since the begin- 
ning of the railway era the newspapers of the State have teemed with 
the statement that the State must necessarily maintain the canal sys- 
tem in order to check the exorbitant tariff demands of competing rail- 
ways. As we have seen, in 1830, just before the beginning of the 
railway era, the State was taxing every article transported upon the 
canals all that it would stand, and the system of excessive State tariffs 
was continued until a few years later, when the competition of the 
railways forced a reduction in the tariff for transportation on the 
canal. 

GROWTH AND DECLINE OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. 

A number of reports bearing on transportation questions were sub- 
mitted in 1835, and finally the fixed policy was adopted of enlarging 
Erie Canal, the act authorizing what is known as the Erie Canal 
enlargement being passed in that year. The law authorizing the 
enlargement directed the construction of double locks and a prism 
with a width at water surface of 70 feet, and a depth of 7 feet, the 
locks to be 110 feet long and 18 feet Avide. It was estimated that an 
enlargement to this extent would save 50 per cent in cost of trans- 
portation, exclusive of tolls. The enlargement to this standard 
width and depth was begun in 1836 and continued to 1842, when the 
legislature directed the suspension of expenditures. In 1847 the 
work of enlargement Vas resumed, and substantially completed in 
1862. Since that time to the work now in progress under the author- 
ity of chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 there has been no change in the 
standard of width at water line of 70 feet and depth of 7 feet. As 
an interesting fact it may be i)ointed out that while the enlargenaent 
authorized in 1835 led to vast increase in the transportation business 
on the State canals the cost of transportation gradually decreased, 
one chief cause of such decrease being the competition of rail- 
AvaA^s, until in 1883 the competition from this source became too 
sharp to maintain longer transportation on the canals if any toll at 
all were charged. The canals were then made free by legislative 
enactment. 



152 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

The popular notion, formerly prevalent in New York, that it has 
been necessary to maintain the State canals in order to regulate the 
railways, is seen to be far from true. The railways have regulated 
the canals quite as much or more than the canals have regulated the 
railways. Indeed, the railways must be considered as having the 
better of it, because the State has been obliged absolutely to do away 
with all tolls on the canals in order to insure their obtaining business 
at all. 

In illustration of the value of the water resources afforded by the 
Great Lakes in conjunction with the New York State internal naviga- 
tion system, the following statement of receipts of flour, wheat, corn, 
oats, barley, and rye at Buffalo for certain j^ears, from 1836 to 1896, 
inclusive, is given. 

Receipts of flour, wheat, corn, oats, barley, and rye at Buffalo from 1836 to 18D6. 



Year. 


Flour. 


Wheat. 


Corn. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye. 




Barrels. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


1836 


139,178 


304, 990 


204, 355 


28, 640 


4,876 


1,500 


1840 
1845 


597, 142 

746, 750 


1,004,561 
1,770,740 


71,337 
54, 200 








23, 300 




" " " 


1850 


1,103,039 


3,681,347 


2,593,378 


357,580 


3,627 




1855 


937, 761 


8, 022, 126 


9,711,430 


2, 693, 222 


62, 304 


299, 591 


1860 


1,122,335 


18,502,615 


386,217 


1,209,594 


262, 158 


80,822 


1865 


1,788,393 


13, 437, 888 


19, 840, 901 


8,494,799 


820, 563 


877, 676 


1870 


1,470,391 


20, 556, 722 


9,410,128 


6,846,983 


1,821,154 


626, 154 


1875 


1, 810, 402 


32, 987, 656 


22, 593, 891 


8, 494, 124 


916, 889 


222, 126 


1880 


1,317,911 


40, 510, 229 


62, 214, 417 


649, 351 


335, 925 


743, 451 


1885 


2, 993, 280 


27, 130, 400 


21,028,230 


767,580 


577, 230 


309, 370 


1890 


6,245,580 


14,868,630 


44, 136, 660 


13, 860, 780 


5, 165, 700 


1,281,030 


1895 


8,971,740 


46, 848, 510 


38,244,960 


21,943,680 


10, 253, 440 


787, 340 


1896 


10,384,184 


54,411,207 


47,811,010 


40, 107, 499 


16, 697, 744 


4,404,354 



A comparison of the statistics of railroad and canal traf&c shows at 
once the vast preponderance of freight carried by the several railways 
centering at New York in comparison with that carried by Erie Canal. 
In spite of the fact that the canal was made free in 1883, figures indi- 
cate that since that time there has been a continual decrease in the 
amount of freight carried on the canals. Probably no feature of this 
change is more significant than that of the internal movement in 
New York State. In 1889 the total movement within the State was 
1,438,759 tons, while in 1896 it was only 565,482 tons. These statistics 
show at once the decreasing estimation in which Erie Canal as a 
means of transportation is held by the great body of shippers in the 
State of New York. One of the results of this decrease is graphically 



RAFTKR.] GROWTH AND DECLINE OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. 



153 



depicted in PI. X, showing the fleet of boats tied np and awaiting 
business. 

By way of illustrating the growth and decline of the business of the 
New York State canals from about 1835-3G to the present time the 
following statement of total tonnage of all freight on the canals, 
ascending and descending, and the value of the same for certain years 
from 1837 to 189G, inclusive, is presented: 

Tonnage of freight on Neio York State canals and value of same, 1S37 to 189G. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Value. 


1837 

1840 .- 


1,171,296 
1,416,046 
1,977,565 
3, 076, 617 
4, 022, 617 
4,650,214 
4,729,654 
6, 173, 769 
4, 859, 958 
6, 457, 656 
4,731,784 
5, 246, 102 
3,500,314 
3, 714, 894 


$55, 809, 288 
66, 303, 892 
100, 629, 859 
156, 397, 929 
204,390,147 
170, 849, 198 
256, 237, 104 
231,836,176 
145, 008, 575 
247, 844, 790 
119,536,189 
145,761,086 
97, 453, 021 
100, 039, 578 


1845 


1850 


1855 


1860 


1865 


1870 _. 


1875 


1880 


1885 


1890 .. . 


1895 


1896 





Without analyzing the figures in detail, it is sufficient to point out 
that if it is true, as popularly supposed, that Erie Canal ought to be 
maintained as a medium of competition with the railways, the figures 
derived from the annual statements of the chief competitor of Erie 
Canal must be taken as conclusive that the competition has, on the 
whole, been a failure. The railwa}^, developed as a iDrivate enter- 
prise, has not only been able to carry freight as cheaply as the canal, 
but has been able to charge for the same and do the work at a i^rofit. 
In the year ending June 30, 1897, the New York Central and Hudson 
River Railway Company paid a dividend on its stock of $4,000,000, 
besides carrying $51,866.80 to the surplus account, whereas the canal, 
although all tolls were removed in 1883, has still been unable to com- 
pete. Among the chief reasons for this result we may mention lack 
of organization of the canal system. The perpetuation of the idea 
that one advantage of the canals was that they were common high- 
ways on which each man could carry his own products to market has 
tended largely to produce this unsatisfactory^ result. Thus far there 
has never been any systematic organization for obtaining business for 
the canal. The boats are owned by small proprietors, each operating 
from one to three or four boats. When cargoes in hand are discharged 



154 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25 

at either terminus, each owner solicits another cargo. The results 
are delays, half cargoes, and consequent loss. During the last few 
years it has been only by the most rigid economy that Erie Canal 
boatmen could live. On the other hand, the business of soliciting 
freight for the railways is compactly organized and every possible 
advantage taken of the situation. 

However unsatisfactory it may seem to the individual boatman, the 
future of effective transportation on Erie Canal depends, in the opinion 
of the author, on the organization of large transportation companies 
which conduct the business of carrying freight by canal on the same 
business basis as adopted by railways. As to the equity of the State 
furnishing and maintaining a waterway on which transportation may 
be conducted by such corporations at a profit the author expresses no 
opinion further than to point out that the official discussion of such 
a proposition by the State engineer and surveyor in his annual report 
for the year ending September 30, 1896, may be taken to indicate that 
the day of Erie Canal as a State waterway has passed. 



COST AND REVENUES OF THE NEW YORK STATE CANAL SYSTEM. 

The accompanying table exhibits the total cost of construction, 
maintenance and operation, and the total revenues from all sources 
of the several canals of New York from their original inception to 
September 30, 1892. 

Cost of construction, mamtenance and operation, arid revenues of New York canal 

system. 



Canals. 


Cost of con- 
struction. 


Cost of 
mainte- 
nance and 
operation. 


Total cost. 


Revenue 

from 

all sources. 


Loss. 


Gain. 


Erie and Cliamplain 
OswesTo 


$57,688,676 
4,643,921 
1,886,662 

4,077,882 

233,962 
513,439 

31,000 

1,602 
2,020 

395,092 

4,807,952 

1,512,041 

6,741,839 


$41,582,759 
3,736,676 
1, 157, 754 
2,082,251 

41,236 
144,060 

18,039 

20 
948 

424,658 

2,105,217 

2,022,259 

2,814,809 


$99,271,435 
8,380,597 
3,044,416 
6,160,133 

275,198 
657,499 

49,039 

1,622 
2,968 

819,750 

6,913,169 

3,534,300 

9,556,648 


$128,191,068 

3,715,567 

1,055,016 

305,663 

214, 428 
65, 180 

1,261 

7,782 
7,534 

45,490 

744,027 

525,565 

860, 165 




$28,919,633 


.$4,665,030 
1,989,400 
5,854,470 

60,770 
592,319 

47,778 








Black River 




Oneida River im- 
provement 






Baldwi nsvi 1 le (so 
called) 




Seneca River tow- 


6,160 


Cay uga Inlet. -- 

Crooked Lake 

(abandoned) . 

Chenango (aban- 
doned) 




4,566 




774,260 

6,169,142 

3,008,735 
8,696,483 






Chemung (a b a n - 
doned) 




Genesee Valley 
(abandoned) 






Total 


82,536,088 


56,130,686 


138,666,774 


135, 738, 746 


31,858,387 


28,930,359 


- 





RAPTEH] IMPROVEMENT OF ERIE CANAL. 155 

The total cost of Crooked Lake, Chenango, Chemung, and Genesee 
Yalle3^ canals, which were abandoned imder the provisions of the law 
of 1877, was ^20,8213,867, and the total revenue from all sources 
$2,175,247. The total loss on the abandoned canals was, therefore, 
$18,048,020. The following is the complete financial exhibit of all 
canals from their inception to September 30, 1802: Total loss on aban- 
doned canals, $18,048,020; net gain on canals now in operation, 
$15,720,592; loss on the whole system, $2,928,028. 

IMPROVEMENT OF ERIE CANAL. 

The canal improvement now in progress was formulated by State 
Engineer and Surveyor Horatio Seymour, jr., about 1878 or 1879. In 
his annual report for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1878, Mr. 
Seymour discusses extensively transportation questions as related to 
Erie Canal, pointing out that transportation can be cheapened in two 
ways — by increasing the tonnage of boats or by increasing their speed. 
As to increasing the tonnage of boats, he states that two methods may 
be used — the locks may be lengthened or the depth of water may be 
increased. He refers to experiments made by Elnathan Sweet by 
which it was shown that the best form of waterway should have a 
cross section 5.39 times the immerged section of the boat, and a sur- 
face width 4.5 times the width of the boat. The width of the canal, 
Mr. Seymour states, is substantially what it should be, but it lacks 
the necessary depth in order to conform to the law of relation of cross 
section of water to immerged section of boat, as determined by Mr. 
Sweet. Reports are submitted showing that an additional depth of 1 
foot could be obtained for about $1,100,000. 

The matter of making the improvement, however, remained in 
abeyance until the passage of an act in 1895, which provided for sub- 
mitting to the people at the State election in November of that year 
the question as to whether an improvement by deepening 2 feet should 
be undertaken, at an expense of $9,000,000. Section 3 of chapter 79 
of the laws of 1895 reads as follows: 

Within three months after issuing of the said bonds the superintendent of public 
works is hereby directed to proceed to enlarge and improve the Erie Canal, the 
Champlain Canal, and the Oswego Canal; the said improvement to the Erie and 
Oswego canals shall consist of deepening the same to a depth of not less than 9 
feet of water, except over and across aqueducts, miter sills, culverts, and other 
permanent structures, where the depth of water shall be at least 8 feet, but the 
deepening may be performed by raising the banks wherever the same may be 
practicable; also the lengthening or improving of the locks which now remain to 
be lengthened, and providing the necessary machinery for drawing boats into the 
imxn-oved locks, and for building vertical stone walls, where, in the opinion of 
the State engineer and surveyor and superintendent of public works, it may be 
necessary. The improvement upon the Champlain Canal shall consist in deepen- 
ing the said canal to 7 feet of water, and the building of such vertical stone walls 



156 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

as, in the opinion of the State engineer and surveyor and superintendent of public 
works, may be necessary. 

The necessary preliminary work was so far completed that bids for 
constructing the improvement were called for in October, 1896, and 
shortly thereafter contracts for work amounting to about 14,000,000 
were awarded. The canal was closed December 1, 1896, and soon 
after work was begun and continued until May 5, 1897, when naviga- 
tion was opened for the season of 1897, and all contractors not work- 
ing with dredges discontinued operations until the winter of 1897-98. 
The act authorizing the present improvement provided, as we have 
seen, that the deepening of the canal prism might be accomplished 
either by excavation or by raising the side walls. As a matter of fact, 
sometimes one method and sometimes the other has been followed, 
depending upon the conditions of each level. Usually, however, a 
part of the increased depth has been obtained by raising the side 
walls, with the balance secured by excavation. 

As is indicated in the extract from the act authorizing the present 
improvement, the work includes the lengthening of such locks as 
have not been previously lengthened. The original locks of the 
enlargement of 1836 to 1862 were 110 feet long by 18 feet wide. In 
1885 work was begun lengthening these locks to 220 feet, or about 210 
feet in the clear, thus permitting two boats to pass through at one 
lockage. Up to the present time 42 of the 72 original locks have 
been lengthened. The 30 locks yet remaining to be dealt with are 
mostly bunched in groups or flights, as, for instance, at Cohoes, where 
16 locks effect a change of level of 140 feet, and at Lockport, where 5 
locks effect a change of 58 feet. In order to lengthen locks built in 
flights it would be necessary to entirely reconstruct them, and as the 
restricted space, especially at Lockport, would render this a very dif- 
ficult thing to do in one winter season, it has therefore been proposed 
to construct at Cohoes and Lockport, and possibly at Newark, verti- 
cal lift locks to take the place of the ordinary locks now in use at 
these places. The State engineer and surveyor has completed the 
plans for the proposed lift lock at Lockport, which is so located 
as not to interfere with the use of the locks now in place there 
during its construction. It has been announced that the $9,000,000 
appropriated will fall about 17,000,000 short of completing the work 
of deepening and lengthening on the lines thus far carried out, 
and in consequence the matter of building the lift locks is held in 
abeyance.^ 

1 For engineering and other details of the canal improvement now in progress see Eng. News, 
Vol. XXXVIII (Sept. 2, 16, and 23, 1897). See also Effect of depth upon artificial waterways, by 
Thomas C. Clark: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXV, pp. 1-40. Also Eng. News, January 
6, 1898, for discussion of the question, What shall New York do with its canals? 



RAFTER.] 



INLAND WArpmWAYS. 



157 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CANALS NOW IN OPERATION, AND THEIR 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Following are some of the main facts in regard to the principal 
canals — Erie, Champlain, Oswego, and Black River — now in opera- 
tion in the State of New York. Similar facts for Oneida Lake Canal, 
Oneida River improvement, the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, and others, 
may be obtained by reference to the annual reports of the superin- 
tendent of public works. 



Length, capacity, and cost of Neiv York State canals. 
ERIE CANAL. 



Original canal. Enlargement 



Length, in miles 

Lockage, in feet 

Average burden of boats, in tons, . . 
Maximum burden of boats, in tons. 

Construction authorized 

Construction completed 

Actual cost of construction 



863.00 


351.78 


675. 50 


645. 80 


70.00 


210.00 


76.00 


240. 00 


Apr. 15, 1817 


May 11, 1835 


Oct., 1836 


Sept., 1862 


$7,143,789 


$44, 465, 414 



CHAMPLAIN CANAL. 



Length of canal, in miles. 
Length of feeder, in miles. 
Length of pond, in miles.. 



66 

7 
5 



Total, in miles 78 

Construction authorized _ Apr. 15, 1817 

Glens Falls feeder authorized Apr. , 1822 

Estimated cost of canal $871, 000 

Total cost of canal and feeder to 1868 2,378,910 

Total cost, including improvements and enlargements, to 1875 . . 4, 044, 000 

OSWEGO CANAL. 





Original 
canal. 


Enlarged 
canal. 


Length, in miles 


38.00 

154. 85 

62.00 

Apr., 1825 

Dec, 1828 

$565, 473 


38.00 


Lockage, in feet 


154. 85 


Average burden of boats, in tons 


225. 00 


Construction authorized 

Construction completed . . 


Apr., 1854 
Sept., 1862 
$4, 427, 589 


Actual cost of construction 







158 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART IT. [no. 25. 

Length, capacity, and cost of New York State canals — Continued. 

BLACK RIVER CANAL. 

Length of canal, Rome to Lyons Falls, in miles 35. 00 

Length of improved river to Carthage, in miles . 42. J 

Length of navigable feeder, in miles 10. 50 

Lockage, in feet ] , 082. 25 

Average burden of boats, in tons . _ . 48. 00 

Construction authorized Apr. , 1836 

Construction completed _ _ 1849 

Actual cost of construction . _ '. $3, 581, 954 

EASTERN DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL. 

Erie Canal is divided into three divisions, known as the eastern, the 
middle, and the western. The eastern division embraces the portion 
of the canal, with its feeders and side cuts, extending from the Hudson 
River at Albany to the dividing line between the counties of Herki- 
mer and Oneida, and the whole of the Champlain Canal, with its 
feeders, ponds, and side cuts. The entire mileage of canals, feeders, 
and river improvements on the eastern division is as follows : 

Mileage of eastern division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Erie Canal, Albany to east line of Oneida County , . 108. 24 

Fort Schuyler and West Troy side cuts 0. 35 

Albany basin . ._ ... 0.77 

Champlain Canal, including Waterf ord side cut . 66. 00 

Navigable river above Troy dam ... 3. 00 

Glens Falls feeder "'. 7.00 

Navigable river above Glens Falls feeder dam 5. 00 

Total 188.36 

Mileage of unnavigahle feeders of the eastern division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Mohawk River at Rexford Flats «. __ 0.39 

Mohawk River at Rocky Rift 3. 92 

Mohawk River at Little Falls 0.19 

Schoharie Creek. 0^63 

Total 5.13 

WATER SUPPLY OF THE EASTERN DIVISION. 

To the west of Little Falls, on the Erie Canal, lies 19.2 miles of the 
eastern division, supplied from the reservoirs and streams of the 
middle division East of Little Falls the suijply is from Mohawk 
River, through Little Falls, Rocky Rift, and Rexford Flats feeders, 
and from Schoharie Creek through Schoharie Creek feeder. As to 
the quantity of water used on that portion of Erie Canal included in 
the eastern division very little is known. With the exception of a few 
thousand cubic feet per minute received from the middle division, 
the supply is, as just indicated, all derived from Mohawk River and 



RAFTER] EASTERN DIVISION OF ERfE CANAL. 159 

its tributary, Schoharie Creek. Thus far no measurements of the 
actual quantity used have been made. Probably the total diversion 
amounts in dr}^ weather to from 500 to GOO cubic feet j)er second. 
Some of this is returned to Mohawk River by leakage and wastage, 
but just what proportion is returned, and what finally delivered either 
into Hudson River at Albany or b}^ the Troy and Fort Schuyler side 
cuts, is not known. In view of the magnitude of the power develop- 
ment on Mohawk River at Cohoes it appears verj^ desirable that such 
a determination be made. 

The water supply of Champlain Canal is derived from Wood Creek 
and several small streams to the north of Fort Edward, Glens Falls 
feeder, Hudson River feeder, from Hudson River itself at Saratoga 
dam, and from Mohawk River at the Cohoes dam. An investigation 
of the amount of water diverted from Hudson River for the supply of 
Champlain Canal was made' by the author in the fall of 1895. 

As already stated, Champlain Canal is fed from Hudson River by 
Glens Falls feeder, which connects with the river about 2 miles above 
Glens Falls and from the Saratoga dam at Northumberland. 

The length of Glens Falls feeder, from the guard lock at its head to 
where it enters Champlain Canal, about 2 miles above Fort Edward, is 
6.92 miles. From this point the water in the canal flows both north 
and south, the total length of canal fed by Glens Falls feeder being 
31.81 miles. Fort Edward level, into which Glens Falls feeder delivers 
water, is a summit level, and hence the water delivered into it, less 
the losses by percolation, evaporation, etc., is partly discharged into 
Lake Champlain and partly into Hudson River at Saratoga dam. 
Champlain Canal crosses through the pond formed by Saratoga dam 
from the east side to the west of the Hudson and again passes out of 
the river, taking a full supply therefrom at the village of Northum- 
berland, from which point to Mohawk River at Cohoes the distance is 
27.06 miles. The water from this section by x)assing into the Mohawk 
finally reaches the Hudson above the Troy dam. The canal crosses 
Mohawk River at Cohoes, taking water therefrom to supplj^ the section 
from Cohoes to near West Troy, a distance of 2.36 miles. A small 
amount of water also passes from Champlain Canal to the Hudson 
through the Waterford side cut. 

Since the construction of Glens Falls feeder there have existed 
serious leaks though the seamy limestone rock in which the feeder is 
excavated at and below the village of Glens Falls. It is claimed that 
the losses through these seams have generally increased, until for sev- 
eral years past they have amounted to about 50 per cent of the total 
flow into the feeder at the guard lock. 

This leakage has been repeatedly complained of by the owners of 
water power at Glens Falls and several attempts to check it have been 
made, but without much avail. The river falls 38 feet at Glens Falls, 
and the owners of the water power there claim that this leakage. 



160 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [>^o. 25. 

which is practically all below the falls, is a detriment to their water 
power which ought not to exist. In order to determine the amount 
of this leakage, as well as the relation which it bears to the ques- 
tion of a material increase in the flow of Hudson River by storage, 
a series of measurements of the flow of the feeder was undertaken 
early in October, 1895. 

Arrangements having been made with the division superintendent 
to maintain a uniform feed for several days before the measurements 
began, as well as during the days when they were actually being- 
made, and points established for verifying the uniformity of the flow 
during the time of the measurements, a series of accurate sections 
was then made at points both above and below the leakage, and a 
large number of current-meter readings taken from a footbridge 
thrown temporarily across the feeder at each section. The results so 
obtained are as follows : 

(1) On October 8, 1895, the flow in the feeder just below the guard 
lock at the feeder dam, above all serious leaks, was 383 cubic feet per 
second. 

(2) On the same day the flow at change bridge No. 13, about one- 
half mile from the feeder dam, above all serious leaks, was 364 cubic 
feet per second. 

(3) On October 9 and 10 the flow a short distance below all serious 
leaks was 213 cubic feet per second. 

(4) On October 10 the flow about half a mile farther down was 1 91 
cubic feet per second. 

(5) On October 11 the flow just above the locks at Sandy Hill was 
182 cubic feet per second. 

(6) A section, also taken October 11, in Champlain Canal, a short 
distance north of where the feeder enters, shows that the amount of 
water passing to the north at that time was 74 cubic feet per second. 

These measurements show that the loss between sections 1 and 5, 
which may be taken as including about all the losses from the feeder, 
is 201 cubic feet per second. The water delivered into Champlain 
Canal is, therefore, only about 47 per cent of the quantity entering 
the feeder at the guard lock. The measurements also show that of 
the 182 cubic feet per second actually delivered to Champlain Canal 
74 cubic feet per second is diverted to the north, and 108 cubic feet 
per second, less the loss from evaporation, etc., is returned to the 
river at the Saratoga dam. 

Since the foregoing measurements were made, the enlargement of 
Champlain Canal has been begun, and its effect, by tearing up the 
old bottom, will undoubtedly be to decrease considerably the supply 
of water for the next few years. Taking into account this decrease, 
as well as the larger losses from evaporation and absorption by vege- 
tation during the summer months, we may place the demands for the 



RAKTKu] MIDDLE DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL. 161 

enbirged Chaniplaiii CjuuiI during the months of canal navigation at 
the following approximate monthly means: 

Water required for the enlarged Champlain Canal. 

Second-feet. 

May 553 

June 600 

July 600 

August ...600 

September 553 

October . 510 

November 495 

With the leakage of Glens Falls feeder done away with, the fore- 
going figures may be reduced about 200 cubic feet \)qy second for 
each month. For the section of Chamx^lain Canal from Northumber- 
land to Cohoes we may assume the water suiDply of the enlarged canal 
at about 255 cubic feet per second in May, October, and November, 
and at about 280 to 290 cubic feet per second in June, July, August, 
and September. 

MIDDLE DIVISION. 

This division comprises that portion of Erie Canal lying between the 
east line of Oneida County and the east line of Wayne County, as well 
as Oswego Canal from Syracuse to Oswego, the Baldwinsville side cut, 
the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, Black River Canal, and other short 
stretches as indicated in detail below. The following are the lengths 
in miles of the several sections : 

Mileage of the middle division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Erie Canal from east line of Oneida County to east line of Wayne County. 97. 02 

Oswego Canal 37.78 

Side cuts and slips at Salina 2. 02 

Slips at Liverpool .25 

Baldwinsville side cut . .59 

Cayuga and Seneca Canal 22. 99 

Black River Canal 35. 52 

Old Oneida Lake Canal 1. 05 

Chenango slip .05 

Chemung Canal, original lake level 2. 53 

Total 199.80 

Mileage of river i^nprovementa pertaining to the middle division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Black River , 42.50 

Onondaga outlet , .75 

Oneida River . . 20 

Seneca River towing path ... 5. 83 

Seneca River Not used. 

Ithaca inlet 2. 05 

Seneca outlet .17 

Total - 71.30 



162 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

Mileage of navigable feeders of the middle division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Limestone Creek feeder _ . 0. 83 

Butternut Creek feeder . 1. 67 

Camillus feeder . , 1. 04 

Delta feeder . 1.40 

Black River feeder 11.29 

Total- 16.23 

The total length of canal, river improvement, and navigable feed- 
ers on the middle division is thus found to be 299.08 miles. The 
following feeders of the middle division are not navigable: 

Mileage of unnavigable feeders of the middle division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Chenango Canal, summit level . . _.. .^ . 5.31 

Leland Pond feeder .31 

Madison Brook feeder _ . 2. 99 

West Branch feeder 5, 83 

Bradleys Brook feeder .67 

Hatch Lake feeder . .23 

Kings Brook feeder 1.87 

Oriskany Creek feeder . .53 

Mohawk feeder at Rome ... . .03 

Oneida Creek feeder 2.91 

Cowasselon Creek feeder , .40 

Chittenango Creek feeder .28 

Cazenovia Lake outlet . .51 

Tioughnioga River feeder .. 1.00 

De Ruyter reservoir outlet .12 

Orville reeder . ^ _ _ . .55 

Camillus feeder (unnavigable portion ) .65 

Carpenter Brook feeder .18 

Skaneateles Creek feeder .09 

Putnam Brook feeder .20 

Centerport feeder .18 

Owasco Creek feeder 2. 10 

Lansing Kill feeder . . 1. 80 

Sugar River feeder .14 

Canachagala Lake outlet.. _. .16 

Total 29.04 

Rome level, which is a summit level, extends from lock No. 46 
to lock No. 47, a distance of 55.96 miles. The following is the esti- 
mated water supply of this level before the beginning of the enlarge- 
ment now in progress. 



HAFTEK.] MIDDLE DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL. 163 

Water suxyply of Rome level, Erie Canal. 

Second-feet. 

Lelancls Pond, Madison Brook reservoir, Eaton Brook reservoir, Bradley- 
Brook reservoir, Hatch Lake, Kingsley Brook reservoir, and Oriskany Creek 
feed through the Chenango Canal, Oriskany Creek, and Oriskany Creek 
feeder into the Rome level, 6 miles west of lock No. 46 100 

Mohawk River, Black River, Forestport Pond, Forestport reservoir. White 
Lake reservoir, Chub Lake, Sand Lake, First, Second, and Third Bisby 
lakes, Woodhull reservoir. Twin Lakes, South Branch reservoir. North 
Branch reservoir, and Canachagala Lake feed through the Rome feeder 
and Black River Canal into the Rome level at Rome, 14 miles west of lock 
No. 46 217 

Oneida Creek enters canal through feeder 30 miles west of lock No. 46 . 17 

Cowasselon Creek enters canal through feeder 31.5 miles west of lock No. 46 3 

Cazenovia Lake reservoir, Erieville reservoir, and Chittenango Creek enter 
canal through Chittenango Creek feeder, 41.5 miles west of lock No. 46; 
average for navigation season about . _ . 47 

De Ruyter reservoir enters canal through Limestone Creek ( Fayette ville) 
feeder, 50 miles west of lock No. 46; average for the navigation season 
about _ - . 32 

Limestone Creek (natural flow) also enters canal through Limestone Creek 
(Fayetteville) feeder, 50 miles west of lock No. 46 . . 8 

Jamesville reservoir enters canal through Orville feeder, 52 miles west of 
look No. 46; average for navigation season ... 11 

Butternut Creek (natural flow) enters canal through Orville feeder, 52 miles 
west of lock No. 46 8 

Total 443 

Jordan level, which is also a summit level, extends from lock No. 50 
to lock No. 51 and is 14. 903 miles in length. The following feeders 
are tributar}^ to this level : 

Water supply of Jordan level, Erie Canal. 

Second-feet. 
Otisco Lake reservoir fed through Camillus feeder into the canal, 4 miles west 

oflockNo.50 . ... 86 

Ninemile Creek (natural flow) also fed into canal through Camillus feeder . ,_ 13 

Carpenter Brook feeder 3 

Skaneateles feeder 146 

Total 248 

The following feeders deliver water into the Port 1^3'ron level, which 
extends from lock No. 51 to No. b^, a distance of 7.79 miles: 

Water supply of Port Byron level,. Erie Canal. 

Second-feet. 

Putnam Brook feeder at Weedsport 3 

Owasco feeder 69 

Total... 72 

OsAvego Canal receives about 1G7 cubic feet per second from Erie 
Canal at Syracuse. The balance of its Avater supply is derived from 
Seneca and Oneida rivers. The total amounts to about 1,100 cubic 
feet per second. Seneca and Cayuga Canal receives about 07 cubic 
feet per second from Erie Canal at Montezuma, and 300 cubic feet 



164 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

per second from Seneca Lake, making a total of 367 cubic feet ijer 
second. 

The approximate water supply of the middle division of Erie Canal 
at present may therefore be summarized as follows : 

Water supply of the middle division of Erie Canal. 

Second-feet. 

Frankfort and Rome level 443 

Jordan level _ 249 

Port Byron level 70 

Total _ 762 

Oswego Canal: 

Supply from Seneca River __. 900 

From Oneida River. 333 

Total 1,233 

Seneca and Cayuga Canal J^ . 300 

Grand total . 2,2^5 

The present total water supply of middle division may thus be 
IDlaced, approximately, at 2,295 second-feet.^ 

RESERVOIRS OF THE MIDDLE DIVISION. 

As indicated in the preceding statement of the water supply of the 
middle division, this division has an extensive system of reservoirs, as, 
for instance, Owasco Lake, the original surface of which has been 
raised by a dam on the outlet about half a mile below the foot of the 
lake. Skaneateles and Otisco lakes have also been raised by similar 
constructions. Proceeding east, the next reservoir is the Jamesville, 
formed by a dam on Butternut Creek. De Ruyter reservoir is on the 
dividing ridge, at the extreme head waters of Limestone Creek, and 
supplied by a feeder from the head waters of Tioughnioga River, a 
tributary of Chenango River. On Chittenango Creek, the next stream 
east of Limestone Creek, we find Cazenovia Lake, controlled by a dam 
at its foot and Erieville reservoir on the extreme head waters. 

On the head waters of Oriskany Creek and Chenango RiA^er there 
is an extensive reservoir system, originally constructed for the pur- 
pose of supplying the summit level of Chenango Canal, but which 
has been retained in use for the water supply of the middle division, 
the water therefrom being conducted to Erie Canal at Utica, through 
the old prism of Chenango Canal, retained as a feeder, or to Erie Canal 
at Oriskany, through the natural channel of Oriskany Creek and a 
short feeder at Oriskany village. The reservoirs on the head waters 
of Oriskany Creek are Madison Brook and Lelands Pond reservoirs; 
those on the head waters of Chenango Creek, and which are con- 
nected with the summit level of the old Chenango Canal by a feeder 

1 This is a very general statement, and to be taken in connection with a large p^ipQunt of 
detailed information in the reports not specifically cited at this time. 



RAFTEH] WESTERN DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL. 165 

several miles in leugth, are Eaton Brook, Hatch Lake, Bradley Brook, 
and Kingsle}' Brook reservoirs. 

Reference may also be made to the reservoirs on Black River and 
its tributaries. These are: WoodhuU, Bisby Lakes Xos. 1, 2, and 3, 
Sand Lake, Chub Lake, White Lake, Canacliagala Lake, North Branch 
Lake, South Brancli Lake, Twin Lakes, and Forestport and Stillwater 
reservoirs. The Bisby Lakes have been abandoned. The details of 
these reservoirs on Black River, as well as those of all other reser- 
voirs thus far connected for the water supply of Erie Canal, may be 
obtained from the table on page 166. 

WESTERN DIVISION. 

The western division of Erie Canal includes the following: 

Mileage of the icesfeim division of Erie Canal. 

Miles. 
Erie Canal from the east line of Wayne County to Hamburg street, in the 

city of Bujffalo 148.92 

Five slips in the city of Buffalo, aggregate length 1. 60 

Genesee River feeder in the city of Rochester 2. 35 

Total lo2.7T 

The unnavigable feeders of this division are: 

Mileage of the unnavigable feeders of the western division, Erie Canal. 

Miles. 

Tonawanda and Oak Orchard Creek 11. 55 

Prism of old Genesee Valley Canal, Cuba reservoir to Rockville 7. 65 

Prism of old Genesee Valley Canal. Scottsville to Rochester feeder dam.. . . 11. 00 

Total 30.20 

The only reservoirs on the western division are the Oil Creek and 
Rockville reservoirs, originally constructed to feed the summit level 
of Genesee Valley Canal, and still retained as subsidiar\^ feeders to 
Erie Canal, their waters being tinally discharged into Genesee River 
and thence taken into the canal through Genesee River at Rochester. 
The main characteristics of Oil Creek and Rockville reservoirs may 
be obtained from the table on page 166. 

The sources of water supply for the western division are: Lake 
Erie, at Buffalo; Tonawanda Creek, at Pendleton; Tonawanda and 
Oak Orchard creeks, at Medina; Aliens Creek, through tiie prism of 
the old Genesee V^alley Canal, from Scottsville to Rochester; the 
Genesee River at Rochester. ^ 

1 The foregoing statements as to lengrli, water supply, and reservoirs of Erie Canal, while 
covering only a small amount of the total data, are still as much as can be given at this time. 
Full information maj' be obtained by reference either to the annual reports of the State engi- 
neer and surveyor from 18.50 to 1890, inclusive, or of the superintendent of public works from 
1878 to 1890, inclusive. Previous to 1878 the reports of the canal commissioners may also be con 
suited for a large amount of useful information. 

IRR '25 5 



166 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART JI, [no. 25. 
Raservoirs for the ivater supply of Erie Canal. 



Reservoir. 




1 

> 






5W 


l> 

< 




>5 


Pi . 
•rt ^ 

o 




Rome level— Erie 
Canal -. 




Feet. 
428 
1,854 
2,018 
2,018 
2,006 
-1,808 
1,599 

1,821 
2,019 

1,124 
1,139 

1,121 

408 
864 

403 
704 

508 

1,489 

428 
1,577 
1,176 
1,276 

585 

1,127 


Miles. 


Acres. 


Ft. 


Acres. 


Feet. 


lib ic feet. 






Woodhull 


1859 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1872 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1857 
1859 
1881 
1853 
1894 


25.0 
27.8 
27.0 
26.0 
24.0 
20.5 
18.0 
32.0 
25.5 
26.0 
22.0 
10.5 
12.5 

25.0 


1,236 
156 
204 
41 
344 
530 
332 
347 
423 
518 
212 
160 
793 


16 

4 

4 

4 

18 

22 

5 

4 

28 

26' 

6 


1,118 

j 

306 

200 
296 
320 
277 
372 
175 


18.0 

3.5 

15.0 
4.0 
5.0 
4.0 
28.0 
26.0 
8.0 
2.0 
7.0 


876,550,000 
40,000,000 

199,879,822 
34,848,000 
64,468,800 
55, 756, 800 

337,851,360 

421,312,320 
60,984,000 
13,921,920 

212,444,000 


$24,089 


$27.47 


Bisby Lake, No. la 

Bisby Lake, No. 3 


Bisby Lake, No. 3 

Sand Lake 


5,505 
8,134 
5,102 
1,456 
34,637 
20,168 


27 71 


Chubb Lake 


233.43 

79 27 


Wliite Lake 


Canachagala Lake 

Nortli Brancb Lake 

South Branch Lake 

Twin Lakes .-. 


26.11 
102.22 

47.87 


Forestport Pond 






Forestport reservoir 


21 


700 






BooNViLLE level- 
Black River Canal. 






Jordan level— Erie 
Canal 
















Skaneateles Lake - - 


1844 
1869 


9.0 
12.0 


8,320 
2,200 






9.0 
10.0 


2,174,512,000 
784,000,000 


14,928 
43, 753 


6.87 








55 81 


Port Byron level- 
Erie Canal, 








Owasco Lake 


1866 


12.0 


680 






5.0 


1,481,040,000 


36,296 


25 59 


Rochester level- 
Erie Canal.-- 








Cuba level— Genesee 
Valley Canal - 


1858 
1812 


















Oil Creek- - --.. 

Rockville 


91.0 
8.30 


605 


65 


525 

72 


15.0 
20.0 


435,738,000 
18,200,000 


89,216 
7,711 


158. 85 
423. 68 


Rome level— Erie 

Canal 








Erieville 


1850 
1857 
1863 
1874 
1836 
1836 
1836 
1836 
1836 
1867 


20.0 
10,0 
25. 
6.0 
36.0 
38.0 
35.0 
25.0 
29.0 
33.0 


340 
1,778 
626 
252 
134 
254 
134 
173 
345 
113 


46 




2L5 
4.5 
18.5 
16.0 
10.0 
50.0 
2.5.0 
8.0 
45.0 
20.0 


318,424,000 
348,523,000 
504,468,000 
170,000,000 

58,370,400 
553,212,000 
145,926,000 

59,287,040 
460,647,000 

98,445,600 


36,837 

10,885 

78, 761 

150,000 

4,464 
28,059 
16,159 

8,891 
36,301 
80, 481 


115. 68 


Cazeno via Lake 


3L23 


De Ruyter 






156.13 


Jamesville 


15 
60 
30 
13 
55 


240 
244 

150 

235 


882. 35 


Hatch Lake&.. 


76.47 


Eaton Brook b 


50.72 


Bradley Brook h 


110. 73 




150.02 


Madison Brook 

Kinsfsley Brook 


78.80 
817. 54 











a Supply to canal through Forestport Pond and Black River Canal. 
b Supply to canal through Oriskany Creek feeder. 



SHIP-CANAL PROJECTS AND WATER SUPPLY. 

By virtue of the geographic i3ositioii of New York, with the Great 
Lakes on its western boundary and the Atlantic Ocean on its eastern, 
and with the commercial capital of the Western Continent as its 
chief city, all discussions of deep water wa}^ projects from the Upper 



HAFTEK] SHIP-CANAL PROJECTS AND WATER SUPPLY. 167 

Great Lakes to the seaboard are, necessarily, chiefl}- discussions of 
the water resources of New York. It is proi)er, therefore, that the 
several deep Avatei- projects now under discussion should be briefly- 
noticed in a report of this character. 

In Februar}^, 1895, Congress by a joint resolution authorized a pre- 
liminary inquiry concerning deep waterways between the Great Lakes 
and the ocean, and provided that the President should appoint three 
commissioners to make such inquiry. The President, under this res- 
olution, appointed Prof. James B. Angell, of Ann Harbor, Michigan; 
John E. Russell, of Leicester, Massachusetts, and Lyman E. Cooley, of 
Chicago, Illinois. The report of the commission, as published in 1897, 
includes a large amount of valuable information in regard to a deep 
waterwaj^ from the L^pper Great Lakes to the Atlantic seaboard. In 
regard to the State of New York, it has been pointed out by Mr. Cooley 
t hat nature has indicated two feasible routes for such a canal. The first 
of these is the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route, extending from Oswego 
through the valle}- of Oswego and Oneida rivers, and thence across 
the divide to the jMohawk, thence through Mohawk Valley to a point 
on the Hudson in the vicinity of Troy, and so on through Hudson 
River to tide water at New York. One objection to this route is the 
lockage over the summit between Lake Ontario and Mohawk Valley. 
Another objection is the absorption of a large quantit}- of water in 
central New York for the sujDply of the summit level of the canal, 
and Avliich probably can be more effectively used in manufacturing; 
that is to say, the State of New York, b}^ developing its manufactur- 
ing resources to their fullest extent, can realize more return from 
manufacturing than from the use of its inland waters for purposes of 
internal navigation of any kind whatever. It may be jDointed out in 
X)assing that the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route would utilize the 
great natural highwaj^ which has been an easy passage to commerce 
from the early daj's of settlement on the Atlantic coast. 

The second natural route through the State of New York is bj^ way 
of St. Lawrence River to the head of Coteau Rapids, where the low- 
water level of Lake St. Francis is 153.5 feet above tide, or 68.5 feet 
above the low- water level of Lake Champlain. On this plan a canal 
would be constructed from Coteau Landing to the head of Lake Cham- 
plain, near Rouses Point, this section requiring cutting through a 
summit about 50 feet in height. Lake Champlain would then be util- 
ized to Whitehall, from which point a canal would be cut through the 
valley leading from Whitehall to Hudson River at Fort Edward, the 
elevation of the water surface of the Hudson a few miles below Fort 
Edward being somewhat less tlian the low-water elevation of Lake 
Champlain. After reaching the Hudson the work would include the 
deepening of that stream to deep water, a few miles below Albanj^ 
Either of the foregoing projects would further include the construc- 
tion of a shii) canal connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario. 



168 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART IL [no. ^'5. 

The advantage of the St. Lawrence-Champlain-Huclson over the 
Oswego-Mohawk-Hiidson route is that the lockage would be all in 
one direction; that is, eastward-bound vessels would lock down all 
the way from Lake Erie to New York. Its disadvantages are increased 
length and the location of the canal connecting St. Lawrence River 
with Lake Champlain in Canadian territory. In regard to increased 
length, it is claimed that not much more time would be required in 
traversing it than Avould be consumed in locking over the Oswego- 
Mohawk summit. 

As to the capacity of the proposed canal, the Deep Waterways Com- 
mission points out in its report that such a canal, if built, should be 
so carried out as to be adequate for vessels of the most economical type, 
not only for coasting or domestic trade but also for the foreign move- 
ment, so that commerce may be carried on directly between lake ports 
and other domestic and foreign ports without transshipment. Tak- 
ing into account various other conditions, the commission believes 
that the requirements of the present demaiid a limiting draft in the' 
proposed canal of 27 or 28 feet; hence, in concluding the general dis- 
cussion, the commission recommends the securing of a channel of a 
navigable depth of not less than 28 feet. 

The commission also says that, starting from the heads of Lakes 
Michigan and Superior, the most eligible route for a deep waterway is 
through the several Great Lakes and their intermediate channels and 
the proposed Niagara ship canal to Lake Ontario, and that the Cana- 
dian seaboard may then be reached from Lake Ontario by the way of 
St. Lawrence River, and the American seaboard reached from Lake 
Ontario by way of either the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route or the St. 
Lawrence-Champlain-E[udson route. The Deep Waterways Commis- 
sion was not authorized to make any considerable expenditure for 
surveys, and hence the conclusions announced are to some degree 
tentative. In view of the uncertainty as to final cost, it is recom- 
mended that the alternative routes from Lake Ontario to the Hudson 
be subject to complete survey in order to obtain a full development 
of the governing economic considerations, as well as to determine their 
relative availabilitj'. 

The commission also recommends a moderate control of the level of 
Lake Erie and of Niagara River above Tonawanda hj dam, bat leaves 
the practical details undetermined in the absence of a full under- 
standing of the phj^sical conditions. 

The river and harbor act of June 3, 1896, directs the Secretary of 
War to cause to be made accurate examinations and estimates of the 
cost of constructing a ship canal by the most practicable route, wholly 
within the United States, from the Great Lakes to the navigable 
waters of Hudson River, of sufficient capacity to transport the ton- 
nage of the lakes to the sea. Under the provisions of this act a report 



KAFTEFJ] SHIT^-CANAL PROJECTS AND WATER .SUPPLY. 169 

Avas subiiutted by Maj. Tliomas W. Syiuons, of tlie Corps of Engi- 
neers, dated June 23, 181)7.' 

Major Symons states that there are three possible routes for tlie sliip 
canal, entirely within the territory of the United States, from the 
Great Lakes to the navigable waters of the Hudson, as follows: 

(1) From Lake Erie via the uf)per Niagara River to the vicinity of 
Tonawanda or La Salle; thence b}^ canal, with locks, either to the 
lower Niagara at or near Lewiston, or to some i)oint on Lake Ontario; 
thence through Lake Ontario to Oswego; thence up Oswego and Oneida 
rivers to Oneida Lake, and through Oneida Lake; thence across the 
divide to Mohawk River, and down that river to the Hudson at Troj^; 
thence down the Hudson. This he designates as the Oswego route. 
From Oswego to Hudson River it is, in effect, the Oswego-Mohawk- 
Hudson route, already described. 

(2) To follow either the line of Erie Canal from Lake Erie to the 
Hudson, or this line so modified as to provide for a continuously 
descending canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson. This he designates 
as the Erie Canal route. 

(3) This route coincides with the first from Lake Erie to Lake 
Ontario, but runs thence through Lake Ontario to St. Lawrence River 
and down said river to some point near Ogdensburg; it then crosses 
the State of New York to Lake Champlain and up that lake to White- 
hall; and thence follows in general the route of the Champlain 
Canal to Hudson River at Troj- . This route, however, Major Symons 
pronounces impracticable. 

There is also discussed a fourth route — the St. Lawrence-Chami)lain — 
all of which, ex<»ept a small portion, is within the United States. This 
route would be via Niagara Falls, Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence, 
Caughnawaga, and Richelieu rivers, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson. 

The opinion is expressed that the best route for the contemx^lated 
ship canal is that via Niagara River, Lake Ontario, Oswego and Oneida 
rivers, Oneida Lake, and Mohawk and Hudson rivers, and that to 
build such a canal by anj^ of the possible routes mentioned would, at 
a rough estimate, cost $200,000,000, the exact figure depending very 
largely upon the action of the State of New York in regard to the State 
canals, feeders, reservoirs, etc. ; and that to maintain the canal and to 
keej) it in repair, including the maintenance of river channels, reser- 
voirs, and feeders, would cost, at a rough estimate, $2,000,000 a year. 
The statement is nmde that a ship canal would be of no special mili- 
tary value, and that its construction is not worthy of being undertaken 
by the General Government because the probable benefits to be 
derived from it would not be commensurate with the cost. 

Major Symons further expresses the opinion that Erie Canal, when 
enlarged under the present plans of the State of New York, may 

1 See Ann. Rept. Chief of Engineers for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897. 



170 WATER EESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

give, if State restrictions ar.e removed, commercial advantages practi- 
cally eqnal to those to be derived from the proposed ship canal, and 
that if Erie Canal be further improved by enlargement to a size suffi- 
cient for 1,500- ton barges, making such alterations in alignment as to 
give a continuously descending canal all the way from Lake Erie to 
the Hudson, and canalizing Mohawk River, the improved canal, navi- 
gated by barges, would render practicable the transportation of freight 
between the East and the West at a lower rate than by a ship canal 
navigated b}^ large lake or ocean vessels. The difficulty of navi- 
gating large vessels through long, shallow canals is the loss of time 
and the consequent great increase in the pro rata expense account, as 
compared with the actual amount transported between termini' Major 
Symons is also of o|)inion that the enlargement of Erie Canal on these 
lines is a project worthy of being undertaken by the General Govern- 
ment, because the benefits to be derived would be commensurate with 
the cost, which he estimates at approximately one-fourth that of a 
ship canal, or $50,000,000. 

Space will not permit abstracting in detail these several interesting 
reports on ship canals across the State of New York. To understand 
the subject in all its bearings, reference must be made to the original 
reports. 

The Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route is discussed in a report by 
Albert J. Himes in the Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor 
for 1895.1 

In this report Mr. Himes expresses the opinion that a sufficient 
water supply could not be obtained for a high summit level across 
the divide, and hence the canal must be cut from the level of Oneida 
Lake through to the corresponding level in Mohawk Valley. In this 
way he proposes to use Oneida Lake as a storage reservoir from which 
to discharge water both ways to Oswego and Mohawk rivers. By 
this plan the surface of Oneida Lake would be raised 10 feet, furnish- 
ing 1,100 second-feet continuously for seven months. Without going 
into detail, the writer can not but believe that the water supply esti- 
mated by Mr. Himes is not entirely adequate for the supply of such a 
canal as has been proposed. If such a canal is constructed, the expe- 
rience gained in the last seventy-five years ought to teach the danger 
of small economies in designing the water supply. Experience shows 
that canal water supplies must be made ample, as otherwise a shortage 
will result sooner or later. 

In a paper on an enlarged waterway between the Great Lakes and 
the Atlantic seaboard, published by William ' Pierson Judson, the 
water supply of the summit level of the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson 
route is discussed at length. Mr. Judson considers that it would be 
entirely proper to take Avhatever deficiency there might be from the 

^ See report on the Enlarged canal via the Oswego route, by Albert J. Himes, resident engi- 
neer, Eastern division, ]N ew York State canals. In Ann. Kept. State Eng. and Surv. for the fiscal 
year ending September 30, 1895. 



RAFTER.] SHIP-CANAL PROJECTS AND WATER SUPPLY. 171 

head waters of the Black River, reservoirs in addition to tliose now 
existing being constructed on the Beaver and Moose rivers, tributary 
to tlie Black, for the purpose of furnishing this water. He recognizes 
that the item of adequate water supply for such a canal is vital, and 
frankly states that if surveys and thorough investigations were to 
show that the demand for water for guch a canal is beyond the capac- 
ity of the sources of supply, then the Oswego-Mohasvk-Hudson route 
would be shown to be impracticable, although, as an alternative 
proposition, he states that it would be entirely practicable to sup- 
ply the summit level of such a canal from Lake Erie. This, it is 
pointed out, can be accomplished by a feeder branch taken from the 
present Erie Canal near IMacedon, 12 miles west of NeAvark, where 
Erie Canal is now 35 feet above the Rome level. The i)roposed 
feeder, instead of stepping down, as does the Erie Canal, can be swung 
off to the south on higher ground at the necessary elevation, passing 
along the south side of Ctyde River and crossing Seneca River near 
the Cayuga Lake Outlet. Seneca River is narrowest here, and the 
feeder could be carried across it in an ojjen trunk on a 40 to 50 foot 
trestle about 2 miles long. Such a feeder 8 feet in depth and 38 feet 
in bottom width would carry 1,000 cubic feet per second, or enough, 
according to Mr. Judson, to meet the assumed needs. On this 
point, however, the author differs; he can not but think that the 
summit-level supx^ly as estimated hj Mr. Judson at 1,000 cubic feet 
per second is much too small. Mr. Judson's discussion of the deep- 
waterway question is further open to criticism in that he does not 
adequately recognize the economic value of the New York water sup- 
plies for use in manufactures. 

In a paper read before the American Society of Civil Engineers in 
1884, Elnathan Sweet proposed a ship canal through to Lake Erie via 
present line of the Erie Canal, except that its alignment be recti- 
fied to follow the line of the feeder, as proposed by Mr. Judson. The 
difficulties of making a ship canal on this line are, however, so great 
that many engineers have considered it absolutely out of the 
question.^ 

A canal on the Oswego-Mohawk -Hudson route 28 to 30 feet in depth, 
with corresponding surface and bottom dimensions, will probably 
absorb all available water of central New York, as well as a consider- 
able portion of Black River. The water powers on Mohawk River at 
Cohoes will necessarily be made subservient to the exigencies of such 
a canal, although Mr. Judson, in the paper already referred to, has 
pointed out how valuable these water powers would l)e for seven or 
eight months of the year to the manufacturing cities of the Mohawk 
Valley. Lender this head we may, however, inquire as to how the 
water power for only seven months of the year would be of any special 

1 See Radical enlargement of the artificial waterway between the Lakes and Hudson River, 
bj^ Elnathan Sweet: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., V^ol. XIV, pp. 37-139, 



172 WATER KESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

value to the city of Cohoes, where, owing to the kind of manufacturing, 
continuous power three hundred and ten daj^s in the year is required. 
Cohoes had a population in 1890 of 22,509, and is stated to have grown 
considerably since, so that in 1897 the population is probably in excess 
of 25,000. This great development is a result of wise management of 
the water power, without which there is no reason to suppose that the 
area on which the city stands would have any greater value than that 
of the surrounding farming region. A j)roposition to interfere seri- 
ously with the water power at Cohoes can only be looked on by the 
author as most extraordinary. Indeed, not the least extraordinary 
feature of the present agitation for ship canals across the State of 
New York is the entire lack of appreciation — so far as the discus- 
sion indicates — of the A^alue to the State of New York of its inland 
waters. 

Aside from the report of Major Symons, the discussion has thus far 
apparentlj^ proceeded on the supposition that the taking of inland 
waters for navigation purposes was a mat.ter on a par with the taking 
of agricultural lands for right of way, the economic value of the 
Avater for power purposes and the resulting effect on the internal 
development of the State having thus far been almost entirely 
ignored. 

AVha.t the people of the State of New York need to consider first 
of all is Avhether the inland waters are not now worth more for man- 
ufacturing than they can possibly be worth for navigation ]3urposes. 
If after investigation it is shown that the water will ]3roduce greater 
income to the people of the State in manufacturing than it will in 
operating such a canal, then from mere commercial considerations 
the people ought not to consent to the construction of such a canal. 
Without having the data at hand for a full discussion, the author, 
after giving the matter careful consideration, is of opinion that the 
State of New York can not afford to forego the possibilit}^ of devel- 
oping its manufacturing interest in order to furnish water for the 
summit level of the proiDOsed Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson deep-water 
canal. At any rate we should know just what results may be expected 
before embarking in the enterprise. If, however, after full investiga- 
tion it ajDpears that the canal Avater supply can be obtained and the 
manufacturing interests protected, no reasonable objection can be 
urged. 

In order to justify the construction of the shi}) canal as a commer- 
cial proposition, the saving on the transportation of an estimated 
annual tonnage of 24,000,000 tons over the cost of its transportation 
by existing means and methods must, at least, equal the interest on 
the cost of the canal plus the annual cost of maintenance and oi)era- 
tion. The first cost is taken at $200,000,000, with the maintenance at 
12,000,000 j)er year. Assuming an interest charge of 3 per cent, the 
annual interest i)lus the maintenance becomes $8,000,000, which sum 



RAFTi:::.] LOSS OF WATER FROM ARTIFICIAL CFIANNELS. 173 

represents tlie annual exj^enso of the proposed sliip canal connecting 
the Great Lakes witli the Atlantic seaboard. As i-egards the State of 
New York, there sliould be added to this amount a snni representing 
the decrease in wealtli in central New York due to the absorption of 
the inland waters of the State awa}'' from manufacturing interests in 
favor of navigation interests. As a rough estimate the author i^laces 
such decrease at not less than $5,000,000 per year, although the 
decrease would x3robabl3^ be much greater than this, but in the absence 
of data for full discussion he places it at a conservative figure, Avhicli 
can not well be gainsaid. On the other hand, if the international St. 
Lawrence-Champlain-Hudson route were to be constructed, not only 
would this source of loss be entirely eliminated, but since that plan 
proposes to deliver water from St. Lawrence RiA'er into Lake Cham- 
plain, and thence by a through cut from Lake Chamj)lain to Hudson 
River, there would be delivered into Hudson River a considerable 
quantity of water Avhich would be available for i^ower at Saratoga 
dam, Mechanicville, and Tro3\ This ship-canal project thus increases 
rather than decreases the productive capacity of the State. Moreover, 
it is probable that the St. Lawrence-Champlain-Hudson route can be 
constructed somewhat more cheaply than the OsAvego-Mohawk-Hudson 
route. 

Without wishing to present the foregoing as in any degree a final 
conclusion, the author can not but think that it is the broad view to 
take oY the question. At any rate, this view presents a line of inves- 
tigation which ought to be pursued to a conclusion before the final 
decision is made. 

LOSS OF WATER FROM ARTIFICAL CHANNELS. 

The large amount of canal construction in New York State has 
necessitated, in order to jDrovide ample water supiDlies, the collection 
of considerable information as to the various sources of loss of water to 
which artificial channels are subject. Some' of the more interesting 
results may be briefly referred to. 

The original Erie Canal Avas constructed with the Avater surface 40 
feet Avide, the bottom Avidth 28 feet, and the depth 4 feet. In 1824 
measurements of the loss from filtration and CA^aporation Avere made 
by Mr. John B. JerA-is on the eastern diA^ision and by Mr. David S. 
Bates on the Avestern diA^sion. Mr. JerA^s states that his measure- 
ments Avere made in the original Erie Canal, betAveen the first locks 
beloAv the village of Amsterdam and the aqueduct beloAV Schenectady, 
a distance of 18 miles. This section Avas constructed mainly through 
an alluA^ial soil, containing a large portion of A^egetable matter. In 
some i)laces this soil Avas A^er}^ leaky, owing probabh^ to the decaA" of 
roots, although the greater jjortion retained Abater A^er}- Avell. There 
Avas a considerable quantity of graA^el and slaty soils. He states that 



174 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 3). 

the quantity of water lost in this 18-mile section was very uniform, 
and averaged 125 cubic feet per mile per minute.^ 

Mr. Bates states that his measurements in 1824 showed that a mile 
of new canal, such as Erie Canal then was between Brockport and 
Ninemile Creek, w^ould require 1.7 cubic feet of water per mile per 
second in order to supply the losses from filtration, leakage, and evap- 
oration. ^ The following are some of the details of Mr. Bates's meas- 
urements in 1824: 

On 79 miles of canal and feeder, comprising 20 miles of canal from 
Rochester to Brockport, 57 miles from Rochester to Cayuga, and 2 
miles of feeder, the supply was 8,000 cubic feet i3er minute, or 121.66 
cubic feet per mile per minute. The months are not stated, althoiigh 
it may be inferred that these observations are averages of the naviga- 
tion season. 

Mr. Bates further states that in August, 1824, he found a total use 
for the 20 miles from Rochester to Brockport of 2,100 cubic feet ]3er 
minute, equal to 105 cubic feet per mile per minute. This section of 
the original Erie Canal was considered to be entirely free from leakage 
at the structures, and the measured losses are therefore taken as those 
due only to percolation, absorption, and evaporation.^ 

In August, 1839, Henry Tracy and S. Talcott, acting under instruc- 
tions from W. H. Talcott, resident engineer of the fourth division of 
Genesee Valley Canal, made a series of observations along the line of 
Chenango Canal, with a view of determining the evaporation, filtra- 
tion, and leakage at the mechanical structures, and whatever else 
might be useful in the designing of the water supply of the summit 
level of Genesee Valley Canal. 

For the purposes of the measurements they selected a portion of the 
canal extending from the north end of the summit level to Erie Canal, 
22 miles in length, on which the total supply on August 31 was found 
to be 39 cubic feet per second. The leakage and waste at aqueducts, 
waste weirs, and at lock No. 1 at the northern end, were found to be 
15 cubic feet XDer second, thus leaving the evaporation and filtration 
on 22 miles at 24 cubic feet per second, equivalent to 1.09 cubic feet 
p^r mile per second. It may be observed, however, that a measure- 
ment made at the end of August would probably not show a maximum 
of either evaporation or absorption by vegetation. Estimating these 
elements at the maximum, we may assume from 1.33 to 1.67 cubic feet 
per mile per second as a more reliable quantity than the 1.09 cubic 
feet per mile per second here actually observed. 

^ Report of John B. Jervis to the canal commissioners, on the Chenango Canal. Ann. Kept. 
Canal Com. (1834). Ass. Doc. No. 55, p. 54. 

2 Report of David S. Bates to the canal commissioners, on the Chenango Canal (1830). Ass. Doc. 
No. 47, p. 31. 

3 See report of F. C. Mills in relation to the G-enesee Valley Canal (1840). Ass. Doc. No. 26, p. 26. 
See also report of W. H. Talcott in the same document. These two reports contain a summary 
of all that had been done in the way of measurements of the various losses now under discussion 
up to that time, as well as a number of references to foreign data. 



UAVTKH.] LOSS OF WATER FROM ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS. 175 

Messrs. Trjic}^ and Talcott also measured tlie leakage and waste at 
the various mechanical structures, etc., which were as follows: Leak- 
age at structures, 220 cubic feet per minute; waste at waste weirs, 
204 cubic feet per minute; leakage at lock No. 1, at the north end of 
the section, 479 cubic feet per minute. This amount, Mr. Talcott 
remarks, was so much greater than at any other lock on the canal as 
to induce the belief that the gates were not i)roperly closed at the 
time of measurement. At lock No. 69 on the same canal, the leakage 
was 382 cubic feet per minute from an 8-foot lift. 

Mr. Talcdtt's report is very able, and presents forcibly all the data 
at hand at that time. It may be said that the data which he gave 
fixed the following quantities as fairly covering the various losses to 
which artificial waterways of the dimensions of the original canals of 
this State are subject:^ 

(1) Loss b}" filtration, absorption, and evaporation, 100.0 cubic feet 
per mile per minute. With retentive soils this could be reduced to 
from 60 to 70 cubic feet per mile per minute. Mr. Talcott fixed on 
66 cubic feet per mile per minute for Genesee Valley Canal, which 
was largely built through heavy soils, but this Avas subsequently found 
too small. 

(2) Leakage at mechanical structures; for locks of 11 feet lift, 
500 cubic feet per minute; for leakage and waste at each waste weir, 
30 cubic feet per minute; for a wooden-trunk aqueduct, an amount 
depending on the length of the structure, but as an average, 0.35 of 
a cubic foot for each linear foot of trunk may be taken. 

In response to a resolution of the canal commissioners of Ai)ril 12, 
1811, Mr. O. W. Childs, then chief engineer of Erie Canal, prepared a 
report on the water supply of the western division Avith reference to 
the enlargement then in progress.^ In this paper Mr. Childs gives 
the results of measurements made by himself in 1841 of losses from 
filtration, absorption, CA^aporation, and leakage on the original Erie 
Canal between Wayneport, in Wayne Count}'^, and Pit Lock, AAliich 
CQrresponded to lock 53, near Clyde, of the present canal. He also 
gave the result of measurements made hy Alfred Barrett betAA'een 
Pittsford and Lockport. 

Mr. Childs's measurements were for a section of the canal 36.02 miles 
in length. On the Palmyra level, for a distance of 8.34 miles, AA^here 
the soil is open and porous the measurements showed a loss of 1.81 
cubic feet per mile per second. On the Clyde IcaxI Avith a more reten- 
tive soil the losses from filtration, absorption, and evaporation were, 
for a distance of 27.68 miles, only 0.59 cubic feet per mile i^er second. 
The entire loss, including leakage, Avas, for the Avhole distance, 1.40 
cubic feet per mile per second. These measurements AA^ere made for 

' The quantities here given apply to canals 40 feet by 28 and i feet deep, and with locks 90 feet 
in length and 15 feet in width and 8 to 10 feet lift. 

2 See Supply of water required for the canal between Lockport and the Seneca River, by 
O. W. Childs: Ann. Rept. Canal Com. (1848). Ass. Doc. No. 16, pp. 141-175. 



176 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART IP. [no. 25. 

a term of tliirt}^- three days, from July 30 to August 31, inclusive. 
Measurements were also made in June, early in July, and in the fol- 
owing October, from which the conclusion was derived that demands 
were greater and the supply less for the time during which the fore- 
going observations were taken than during any other portion of tlie 
season. > 

Mr. Barrett's measurements were made at various points on the 
original canal between Pittsford and Lockport, and repeated each da}^ 
from Jul}?^ 17 to September 30, inclusive. They showed an average 
loss for the whole period of 73.0 cubic feet per mile per minute. 
Assuming the same ratio of loss between Pittsford and Wayneport, 
there resulted, for the entire distance of 122 miles from Lockport to 
Pit Lock, an average loss of 67 cubic feet per mile per minute. Mr. 
Childs states that an addition to the foregoing quantity should be 
made as an allowance for springs and several small streams entering 
the canal which could not be measured. Making such additions he 
concludes that 1.42 cubic feet per mile per second should be taken as 
the total quantity consumed on the 122 miles of canal under consid- 
eration, which is equivalent to a total of 173 cubic feet per second. 
It is stated in the original reports that the supply of water was ample 
for all the purposes of navigation during these measurements. 

Comparing Mr; Childs's measurements of 1841 with those made by 
Messrs. Jervis and Bates in 1824, one point of great practical utilit}^ is 
strongly brought out, namely, as to the excess of loss of water in new 
canals over those some time in use; thus Mr. Bates found in 1824, on 
the same reach of canal as was measured by Mr. Childs in 1841, a 
total loss of from 1.68 to 1.75 cubic feet per mile per second. It may 
be assumed that the springs and streams allowed for hy Mr. Childs 
were delivering into the canal in 1824 the same as in 1841, at least 
0.17 to 0.25 cubic feet per mile per second. We have, then, as the 
total supptyin 1824 from 1.92 to 2.00 cubic feet per mile per second. 
AdoiDting the latter figure as a maximum to compare with Mr. Childs's 
figure of 1.42 cubic feet per mile per second, as found in 1841, the con- 
clusion is reached that the decrease in the loss by filtration — due pre- 
sumably to the gradual silting up of the bottom — is something like 
0.75 cubic feet per mile per second. 

This conclusion may be applied to the conditions of the Erie Canal 
enlargement now in progress, in which it is proposed to excavate 1 
foot from the bottom of many of the levels. The effect of this will be 
to remove the silt accumulations of many years, thus placing the bot- 
tom of the canal, as regards porousness and consequent percolation 
and filtration loss, in the same condition as when constructed. This 
consideration alone indicates the necessity of making the water sup- 
ply of the enlarged canal liberal in order to answer the demands of 
the first few years while the bottom is again attaining a fixed condi- 
tion. 



RAFTEU] LOSS OF WATER FROM ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS. 177 

Under tliis head it may be remarked that the experience of seventy- 
five years in the operation of the New Yorlv State canals has thoroughly 
shown the f utilitj^ of any attempt at excessive economy in water sup- 
ply. In the absence of sj^stematic information as to yield of streams, 
the general tendency has been to overrate the summer flow, Avith the 
result of shortage frequently at points where the supply was believed 
to be ample. The chief sources of such shortage may be enumerated 
as follows: 

(1) The great variation in the yield of drainage areas from year to 
year, b}' reason of differences in the rainfall, humidity, and tempera- 
ture. 

(2) The cutting off of forests, which has increased somewhat the 
spring-flood flows and decreased the summer flow. 

(3) The systematic drainage of large areas, which has also tended 
to increase the flood flows and decrease the summer flows. 

(4) The growth of aquatic plants on long levels and the formation 
of sand bars in the canal, which have tended to decrease the amount 
passing. 

Among minor sources of loss, evaporation and absorption by grow- 
ing x)lants may be mentioned, both of which var}^ somewhat in differ- 
ent 3^ears, although neither can be considered a serious source of loss. 
A number of other measurements of the losses from the original Erie 
Canal are recorded in the reports, but the foregoing are sufficient for 
present purposes.^ 

A study of all the measurements in detail shows that in an artificial 
channel of the dimensions of the original Erie Canal, and constructed 
on the American system, there should be provided at least 80 to 100 
cubic feet per mile per minute, exclusive of water for fllling and for 
lockages. 

Using the data of the measurements of 1841, Mr. Cliilds arrived at 
the water supply of the enlarged . canal of that dciy in the following 
manner : It was assumed that the loss by filtration through the bot- 
tom and sides of the canal would be as the square root of the pressure 
or depth of the water, and as the area of the surface j)ressed. Pro- 
ceeding on this assumption, he computed the quantity" required to 
supply the losses from filtration, leakage, and evaporation (in the 
enlarged canal, 1840 to 1860), at 3.17 cubic feet per mile per second. 
This figure was subsequentlj^ substantially adopted for the entire 
enlarged canal, and, with the exception of a few special cases, is still 
in use. 

Adding the amount required for lockages at lock 53, Mr. Childs 
placed the entire supi^lj^ for the western division, from Lockport to 
the east end, at 3.48 cubic feet per mile per second, or at a total of 
424 cubic feet per second for 122 miles of canal. 

The canal enlargement now in progress contemplates an increase in 

lAss. Doc. (1840), No. 96, p. 26; also Ass. Doc. (1842), No. 24, p. 37. 



178 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

depth from 7 to 9 feet. Taking into account the results of the meas- 
urements on the original Erie Canal, as well as those made by Mr. 
Childs on the enlarged canal of 1840 to 1860, it has been concluded 
that the proper figure for water supply on the Avestern division, to 
which the studies thus far specially refer, should be taken at from 4.17 
to 4.0 cubic feet per mile per second.^ 

As to the use of water for lockage, leakage of gates, drawing and 
swelling of boats, and for turbine water wheels to operate gate-lifting 
machinery, reference may be made to the Annual Report of the State 
Engineer and Surveyor for 1889, where data covering these different 
points may be found. 

Ordinarily, the flow of a natural drainage channel increases farther 
down the stream. The outlet of Skaneateles Lake, however, appears 
to present an opposite example — that is to say, there is less water 
flowing at the mouth of the stream than at its head. This statement 
is derived from a report on the water supply of the middle division of 
Erie Canal, made in 1862, ^ according to which measurements were 
made by Mr. S. H. Sweet of the flow through the natural channel of 
the Skaneateles Outlet, 10 miles in length, discharging into the Erie 
Canal at Jordan. Mr. Sweet's measurements, which were continued 
through the drj^ season of 1859 and the entire season of navigation, 
apparently indicated a loss of water of more than 3,000 cubic feet per 
minute in this natural channel. The detail, however, is lacking, and 
probably before accepting this as a fact the measurements made in 
1859 should be verified. 

USE AISTD VALUE OF WATER POWER. 

WATER POWER OF ERIE CANAL. 

When Erie Canal was first constructed the policy was adopted of 
leasing the so-called surplus waters for power purposes. Under the 
terms of the act of 1825, leases were made during 1826 and subsequent 
years to a number of persons at Black Rock, Lockport, and other 
localities. 

POWER AT BLACK ROCK. 

The granting of these leases and the resultant development of large 
manufacturing interests at several points have raised certain eco- 
nomic questions which will now be briefly discussed. The water 
power at Black Rock, for which several leases were granted, may be 
first mentioned. This power is created by the difference in level 
between the water in Erie Canal and Black Rock Harbor and that in 
Niagara River outside the harbor wall, this difference of water level 

1 The foregoing statements in regard to measurements of water supply of Erie Canal are 
abstracted from a report on the water supply of the western division of the Erie Canal, by 
the author, and are to be found in Appendix I to the Ann. Rept. of the State Eng. and Surv. for 
the fiscal year ending September 30, 1896. 

2 See Ann. Rept. of State Eng. and Surv. for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1862, pp. 403, 403. 



RAFTER.] WATER POWER AT LOCKPOirr. 179 

amoiinting to from 4 feet to 4.5 feet. As measured in tlie spring of 
1896, at a point near tlie sliip lock, it was about 4 feet. According to 
the report of the assembly committee of 1870, as referred to in the 
footnote, there were formerly ten mills in operation at Black Rock, 
using 2,744 second-feet of water. The power developed by these 
mills, and all operating at full capacitj^, is estimated at not exceeding 
520 horsepower. Owing to the decline of the milling business in New 
York State a number of these mills have passed out of existence. 

The four mills still in existence require about 1,200 cubic feet of 
water lier second to oi3erate them, at the full capiicity of the wheels 
now in place. 

The use of water by the Black Rock mills has alwaj' s been a detri- 
ment to navigation. AVhen all were running the amount of water 
actually drawn through the canal and harbor for their sui^ph', and for 
the supply of the canal to the east of Buffalo, was fully 3,300 cubic 
feet i^er second.^ 

When all the Black Rock mills were in operation the great draft 
of water so obstructed the navigation that the legislature finally 
authorized the construction of a division wall in Black River Harbor, 
b.y which it was expected that the water supply for the mills would be 
entirel}^ taken from the harbor, leaving the channel of the canal pretty 
nearty free for the purposes of navigation ; but after the greater part 
of the wall was completed it Avas ascertained that because of the silt- 
ing of the uj)i)er harbor with sewage mud, as Avell as drifting sand 
from the lake, there would be difficulty in obtaining the full supply for 
the mills through the harbor, without extensive dredging. The divi- 
sion wall was, therefore, never completed, two gaps, amounting, in the 
aggregate, to several hundred feet, having been left below Terry 
street. There Avas thus an expenditure of about 1350,000 for the bene- 
fit of the milling interests which is entirely without effect for lack of 
completion. Under the present conditions, however, of entire decline 
of the Black Rock milling interests, there is, of course, no reason why 
the wall should be completed, and the matter is discussed here at all 
merel}^ for the purpose of bringing out clearly the struggle between 
the navigation interests and the manufacturing interests, Avhich has 
been in i^rogress in New York State for the last seventy-five years. 

POWER AT LOCKPORT. 

At Lockport the construction of the Erie Canal through the moun- 
tain ridge created a fall of 58 feet at a single point, and since the use 
of Avater for lockage purposes is only a small part of the Avhole flow. 
The balance required to feed the canal to the east of Lockport is neces- 
sarily discharged around the locks into the loAver canal b}^ means of 

' The assembly committee of 1870 give the following figures as then applicable: Lower Black 
Eock mills, 1,887 second-feet; tipper Black Rock mills, 858 secoud-feet; for supply of canal, 583 
second- feet; total, 3,328 second-feet. 



180 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25 



sluiceways. Under the provisions of the laws of 1825, a public auc- 
tion was held in the village of Lockport, in the fall of that year, and 
the right to use this surplus water sold to Messrs. Richard Kennedy 
and James H. Hatch, whose successors at the present day constitute 
the Lockport Hydraulic Powder Company. 

Lockport has usually been considered more purelj^ a result of the 
canal development than any other point in western New York, for 
the reason tliat while nearl}^ all other towns in the region had some 
growth before the Erie Canal was located,, it was only in 1821, after 
the present location for the canal had been definitely decided on, that 
the nucleus of a village w^as formed here by the contractors and their 
workmen emplo,yed on the canal. In 1820 there was no frame house 
or barn within 5 miles of Lockport, and there were less than 600 acres 
of cleared land in the i square miles, of which the city of Lockport is 
now the center. Moreover, there are no natural advantages which 
would have naturally led to the growth of an important town at this 
point. The water supply of the region is so deficient that even to 
this day the city takes its public supply from Erie Canal, which is 
grossly polluted with sewage from the city of Buffalo. It may be con- 
sidered, therefore, that the city of Lockport owes its existence entirely 
to the creation bj^ Erie Canal of a large water power at this point. 

When once started, however, under the impulse of the canal develop- 
ment, Lockport grew rapidly until, in 1829, with a population of 3,000, 
it was incorporated as a village, and in 1865 as a citj^ The populatiou 
in 1890 was 16,038, in 1897 it is estimated at over 17,000. 

The total investment in manufacturing plants at Lockport depend- 
ent on the Erie Canal water suppl}^ amounts to $2,531,000. The total 
number of establishments is 33, employing 1,880 operatives. The 
total power now in use on Erie Canal proper is 2,625 net horsepower. 

A short distance to the east of the foot of the locks a small stream 
known as the West Branch of Eighteenmile Creek crosses under the 
canal. This stream, although having a drainage area of only 1 or 2 
square miles to the south of the canal, has cut a deep valley with 
rapid fall for a considerable distance to the north of the canal. In 
order to provide for discharging the surplus waters from the canal, an 
overflow into Eighteenmile Creek was constructed at an early day. 
A mill was also permitted to take water from the lower level and dis- 
charge its tail-water into the creek. Finally the Jackson Lumber 
Company was permitted to construct a sluiceway on the towpath side, 
through which it drew for many years about 600 second-feet, and 
which was all discharged into Eighteenmile Creek. Complaints hav- 
ing frequently been made that boats were drawn against this sluice 
on the towpath side, the superintendent of public works, in 1892, 
granted a formal permit to the Jackson Lumber Company to construct 
a sluice and subway under the canal bottom, by wdiich this water is 
now drawn from the berme side. Under this permit a substantial 



RAFTER.] WATER POWER AT LOCKPORT. 181 

masonry sluice was constructed in 1893. In the meantime the Jack- 
son Lumber Company has gone out of existence, and this water power 
has passed into the hands of the Traders' Paper Comi)any, which now 
occupies the site with its pulj) mill No. 1. 

West Branch of Eighteenmile Creek descends about 175 feet within 
the limits of the city of Lockport, of which 148 feet have been utilized 
for power during recent years. 

The following are the companies now using i)ower on this creek and 
the horsepower used by each : 

Power utilized on West Branch of Eighteenmile Creek. 

Horsepower. 

Traders' Paper Company . . . _ _ 1 , 060 

Lockport Paper Company 230 

Niagara Paper Company 115 

Westerman and Company 320 

Cascade Pulp Company 925 

Cowles Smelting Company ... 1 , 185 

Total 3,835 

The output of the establishments on West Branch of Eighteenmile 
Creek is about $2,000,000 a year; but this sum includes the output 
of the Indurated Fibre Company, which, while operating by steam 
power, depends largely for a supply of pulp on the Cascade Pulp 
Company. In any case, the figures show the magnitude of the manu- 
facturing interests which have been fostered in the valley of West 
Branch of Eighteenmile Creek, by discharging into that stream about 
300 second-feet of water from the Erie Canal. 

With 2,625 net horsepower in use on the canal proper, and 3,835 on 
West Branch of Eighteenmile Creek, the total actually in use at 
Lockport, and dependent on Erie Canal for its water supply, is 6,1:60 
7"iet horsepower. 

No statements as to the value of the annual product of the manu- 
facturing establishments on the raceways of the Lockport Hydraulic 
Power Company have been given. It is therefore impossible to state 
accurately the value of the total annual product at Lockport. As 
several of the establishments there are very extensive, including the 
Holly Manufacturing Company, it may be assumed that the annual 
output of this portion of the Lockport manufactories has a value, at 
least, of 81,000,000; hence Ave reach a total value of the annual prod- 
uct for the whole city of about $3,000,000. 

The annual rental paid to the State, under the terms of the original 
lease, is only $200. At first sight it appears that there is here a most 
marked case of what could onlj" be termed blundering on the part of 
State officials, although on analyzing the matter it is found that this 
extreme view is hardly correct. In the first place it must be remem- 
IRR 25 6 



182 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

bered that this lease was granted not only by authority of an act 
of legislature, but was only granted after a public auction had been 
held, at which Messrs. Kennedy and Hatch were the highest bidders. 
As already shown, had not the special conditions created by Erie 
Canal existed at Lockport, there would, in all probability, have been 
no thriving city at that point, but the area on which Lockport now 
stands would have been farming land, with no more value than now 
attaches to farming lands in the adjoining township of Lockport. 

In order to show the results of this lease, at $200 a 3^ear, a study has 
been made of the growth of Lockport from the year 1865, when Lock- 
port became a city, to 1896. It appears, for instance, that the valuation 
of the city has increased from less than $3,000,000 to over $6,700,000, 
and that the total State tax collected up to and including the year 
1896 has amounted to over half a million dollars. If this had remained 
as a small farming community the State tax would probably not have 
been more than 3 per cent of this amQunt. Using this tax return as 
a basis, it has been computed that there has been an actual increase 
of wealth to the people of the State by the existence of Lockport of 
over one and a half million dollars, not including in this the actual 
increased value of the city itself. The conclusion is drawn that the 
benefit to the State at large has been very great on account of this 
expenditure for internal improvement, irrespective of questions of 
navigation. 

POWER AT MEDINA. 

The Oak Orchard feeder and the water power at Medina present 
somewhat different points for consideration from those at Lockport. 

About 1820 the canal commissioners caused a cut-off channel to be 
constructed through Tonawanda swamp between Tonawanda and Oak 
Orchard creeks, whereby the early summer flow of Tonawanda Creek 
is diverted into Oak Orchard Creek. Oak Orchard Creek passes under 
the Erie Canal at Medina, and the original feeder channel at that place 
was an artificial channel leading from a dam thrown across the creek 
and entering the canal near West Branch of Oak Orchard Creek at 
Medina. At some period subsequent to 1823 a race way was constructed 
by private parties leading from a second dam higher than the feeder 
dam and conducting water into the central part of the village, where, 
after it is used, it is finally allowed to pass into the canal. During the 
enlargement of 1836 to 1862 the water-surface level of the canal at 
Medina was raised, and inasmuch as this change necessitated raising 
the feeder dam somewhat, it was finally concluded to discontinue the 
feeder and depend entirely on the race way for such supply as the canal 
might receive at this point. 

Oak Orchard feeder has been considered as furnishing about 27 
cubic feet of water per second to the canal, although measurements 
made in 1850 show about 37 cubic feet per second. Since then the 
clearing up of forests and the drainage of Oak Orchard and Tona- 



RAFTER] WATER POWER AT MEDINA. 183 

wanda swamps have tended to reduce materially the low-water flow 
until it is probably less than 27 cubic feet per second. Moreover, 
for the future, the dry-weather jield from this drainage area may be 
exjiected to be somewhat less than in the past, because of the deep- 
ening of the channel of Oak Orchard Creek and of the crosscut 
authorized by the laws of 1893. The act provided for deepening the 
channel of Oak Orchard Creek from a point 2^ miles below where 
Tonawanda Creek enters the Oak Orchard and for the cleaning, 
improving, widening, and deepening of the channel of East Branch 
of Oak Orchard Creek. This work has been done as a sanitary 
measure, and its effect will probably be to run the water out of the 
swamps more rapidly in the spring, thus materially decreasing the 
dry- weather flow.^ 

According to a statement furnished by Mr. A. L. Sweet, president 
of the Business Men's Association of Medina, the number of oper- 
atives employed in 1896 in manufacturing enterprises dependent on 
water power at Medina was 515; the amount of capital invested in 
establishments actually in operation was $371,000, while the value of 
the annual product of the same establishments was 1575,000. These 
figures do not include the Medina Falls flouring mill, which was idle 
at the time these statements were made. 

The total developed water power at Medina, on the race way and 
on the Oak Orchard Creek, is estimated at 827 horsepower, which 
includes the wheels at Medina Falls flouring mill. Deducting these 
wheels, amounting to 338 horsepower, the total actually in use in 1896 
is 489 horsepower. The use of water at the establishments on the 
creek A^aries from 110 cubic feet per second to 49 cubic feet per second, 
the former quantitj' being due to the Medina Falls flouring mill, where 
the head is 33 feet. Relative to the fine power at Medina Falls, it 
may be stated that it is imj^robable, considering the amount of power 
available at this location, that it will remain unutilized for any great 
length of time. The trouble at Medina Falls flouring mill is the same 
as that affecting the large flour mills at Black Rock and other places 
in New York — the competition of cheap grain and transportation from 
Western mills. 

Without going into the historical part of the subject, it may be 
said that the mill owners at Medina claim that by reason of the grant- 
ing of a right of way for the cut-off between Tonawanda and Oak 
Orchard creeks, and the gift of 100,000 acres of land to the canal 
fund by their original grantor, the Holland Land Company — a part of 
the consideration for which was an improvement of the water power 
of Oak Orchard Creek — they have an equitable right to the use of the 
water of the feeder. If, therefore, the effect of the drainage author- 
ized by the laws of 1893 has been to decrease the low-water flow of 

1 For extended account of Oak Orchard Creek and its relations to the feeder, see Report on 
the drainage of the Oak Orchard and vicinity streams, in the Fourth Ann. Rept. of the State 
Board of Health (1883), pp. 43-116. 



184 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

Oak Orchard Creek, it is maintained tliat the mill owners are entitled 
to enough water from the canal to make good the deficiency. 

There are a number of other points on the Erie Canal where water 
powers have been fostered under the provisions of the laws of 1825, 
but lack of space precludes discussion of that phase of the subject. 

SELLING PRICE OF WATER POWER. 

The principal places in N^ew York State at which hydraulic devel- 
opments have thus far been made for the purpose of selling power are 
Oswego, Cohoes, Lockport, and Niagara Falls. At Oswego the power 
on the east side of the river is owned by the Oswego Canal Company, 
the development being by a canal 4,000 feet long, with an average 
surface width of 60 feet and a depth of 6 feet. The water from this 
canal is dropped into Oswego River at the level of Lake Ontario. 
The working head is from 18 to 20 feet, although with high water in 
the canal and low water in Lake Ontario, the working head becomes 
somewhat greater. 

The State controls the first right to the flow of Oswego River in 
order to maintain slack-water navigation in the pool above the dam 
at the head of the Oswego Canal Company's race way, all water not 
needed for canal purposes being equally divided between the Oswego 
Canal Company's race on the east side and the Varick Canal on the 
west side. The Oswego Canal Company gives a 999-year lease of 
water, but without land for location of buildings. A water right on 
this canal is called a run, meaning, probably, the amount of water 
required to drive a run of stone, a run of water being taken at 11.75 
second-feet which, under the ordinary working head of 20 feet, will, 
at 75 per cent efficiency, produce 20 horsepower. There are assumed 
to be 32 first-class runs, the rental for which is $350 a year for each 
run. At this price the cost of a horsepower a year, with 75 per cent 
efiicieucy, becomes $17.48, or the cost of a gross horsepower a year 
becomes 113.11. There are also 32 second-class runs, of which the 
rental varies from $250 to $300 a year for each run. Further, there 
are surplus runs which are rented at a little over one-half of the 
rental charged for first-class runs. In case of a shortage of water the 
surplus runs are shut down successively, beginning with the most 
recent leases; after this the second-class runs share equally with one 
another in reduction; and finally, in case of extreme shortage, the 
first-class runs are similarly cut down. 

The Yarick Canal on the west side of the river controls one-half of 
all the water not needed for navigation purposes, the same as the 
Oswego Canal Company's canal on the east side. In order that the 
water may be divided equally between these two canals both have the 
same aggregate waterway at the head gates, and by gages on both 
sides, which are examined whenever necessary, it can be seen whether 
one canal is drawn below the other, and the gates changed accord- 



RAFTER.] VALUE OF WATER POWER. 185 

ingly. On this canal there are recognized 50 first-class runs, 17 
second-class, and an unlimited number of third-class. For first-class 
runs the rental is from $250 to 1300 per annum ; for second and third 
class it ranges from Si 25 to $150. Bj^ a decree of the supreme court, 
dated August 21, 1875, a run of water on the Yarick Canal ranges 
between 28 cubic feet per second, under a head of 12 feet, and 25 cubic 
feet per second, under a head of 13 feet. The actual working head is, 
however, ordinarily only about 10 feet, so that on the foregoing basis a 
run of water may be taken as 33.3 cubic feet per second. At the price 
of first-class runs of from 1250 to 300, and with 75 per cent efficiency, 
the cost per horsepower per annum varies from $8.80 to 810.56, a run 
on the Varick Canal being equal to 33.3 cubic feet per second on 10 
feet head, an amouat of water which yields 37.9 horsepower under 
that head. 

As to the difference in cost of water on these two canals at Oswego, 
it may be pointed out that the Oswego Canal Companj^'s race has a 
substantial advantage over the Yarick race, in that it extends to the 
harbor, enabling vessels to come direct!}^ alongside of the mills. 
Moreover, the division of water rights is such that a fii-st-class run of 
water can always be depended on along the Oswego Canal Company's 
race, but can not on Yarick Canal. ^ 

At Cohoes we have the great power development built up by The 
Cohoes Company, which has, by careful management of the water 
power, built up at this place a fine manufacturing city of 25,000 
inhabitants. Lack of space will not permit description of this devel- 
opment in detail. 

The Cohoes Compan}' not only owns all of the hj^draulic canals, but 
also the land adjoining the canals. It gives to manufacturers a per- 
petual lease of land and water, the entire property leased remaining 
subject to a rental of $200 per year per mill power. On this basis the 
land is regarded as donated and the rental applies onlj^ to the water 
power. Formerly, the standard for measuring water was 100 square 
inches, to be measured through an aperture in a thin plate 50 inches 
Avide, 2 inches deep, and under a head of 3 feet from the surface of 
the water to the center of the aperture; but in 1859 a series of meas- 
urements were carefully made under the direction of the late James 
B. Francis, using an old canal lock as a measuring chamber. These 
measurements showed that the old standard corresponded to about 5.9 
cubic feet of water i^er second. As a result 6.0 cubic feet of water 
per second, under 20 feet head, was taken as a new standard consti- 
tuting a mill power. On this basis a mill power is equivalent to 13.63 
gross horsepower, which, at 8200 per mill power iDcr annum, costs 
$14.67 per gross horsepower per annum. At 75 per cent efficiency 
the annual rental for water for net hrrsepower becomes $19.57. In 

' For additional detail of the water power at Oswego, see Report of Water Power of the United 
States, Tenth Census, Vol. I, pp. 21-27. 



186 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25 



regard to just what is paid for by the annual rental, both at Oswego 
and Cohoes, it may be remarked that the foregoing prices are for 
water in the race way, the company maintaining the dams, head works, 
and main race ways, the lessee taking the water at the face of the 
race way and maintaining his own head gates, flumes, bulkheads, 
wheels, and any other appliances necessary for utilizing the water in 
the production of power. 

The water power at Lockport, owned by the Lockport Hydraulic 
Company, is formed by the drop of the surplus water of the Erie 
Canal through a distance of 58 feet. A run of water at Lockport does 
not appear to be very well defined, but the rental charge ranges from 
112.50 to 116.67 per effective horsepower. So far as known to the 
author, just what constitutes an effective horsepower has not been 
defined. 

At Niagara Falls the rental price of undeveloped hydraulic power 
has been fixed at from 18 to $10 per gross horsepower per annum, the 
party renting the power taking the water at the face of the head race 
and making its own connection with the discharge tunnel. Electric 
power by a two-phase alternating current as it comes from the gener- 
ator is sold in blocks of 2,000 or 3,000 horsepower, at 120 per net horse- 
power per annum, the purchasers furnishing transformers, motors, and 
all other electric appliances. In small blocks the price has been fixed 
somewhat higher. 

A small amount of power has also been sold at different times at 
Rochester, but since the power at this place is nearly all held by 
manufacturers who use it at first hand, nothing like a fixed price has 
been made at Rochester, Generally, power rented has been in small 
quantities and in connection with floor space, the rental price being 
really for floor space with small power furnished. Reckoning on this 
basis, small powers have frequently been rented at Rochester at as 
high a price as $100 per horsepower per year, this being for power 
on the shaft, all expenses of maintaining wheels, transmission shafts, 
etc. , being borne by the owner. 

The electric companies at Rochester furnish electric power in small 
blocks at 3 cents per electric horsepower per hour, which, on the 
basis of ten hours a day and three hundred and ten days a year, 
becomes $93 per electric horsepower per annum. 

STATE OWNERSHIP OF INLAND WATERS. 

Without going into a detailed discussion as to State ownership of 
inland waters in New York, attention may be called to a few of the 
more essential facts. The absolute ownership by the State of the 
beds and banks and water flowing in the Hudson and Mohawk rivers 
has been confirmed by repeated decisions of the highest courts of the 
State. By reason of the peculiar circumstances of the early settle- 
ment of the country the English common-law rule applies to all the 



RAFTER.] STATE OWNERSHIP OF INLAND WATERS. 187 

streams of the State except the Hudson and Mohawk, from wliicli it 
results that all other inland streams are owned to the tliread of the 
stream by the abutting proprietors. 

Owing to a confusion of ideas — largely on the part of citizens 
appointed to the position of canal appraisers, where they exercised 
to some extent judicial functions — there arose in the early days a 
broad claim of State ownership to inland waters tributary to the Erie 
canal. The claim was, however, finally decided in the negative. 
This condition has, in the case of Genesee River, worked great injus- 
tice to the riparian owners, in that under a claim of temporary diver- 
sion and an assumed right of permanent appropriation by a statutory 
enactment declaring the stream a public highway no adequate dam- 
ages have ever been paid for the diversion actually made from the 
stream for many years. 

A similar lack of appreciation of the real relations of the State to 
individual citizens in regard to common rights in running streams 
has apparently led to the enunciation of a course of action on the 
part of canal officials which, to some extent, in effect confiscates pri- 
vate property. 

In the case of Black River the State has extensively adopted the 
method of compensation in kind rather than compensation in money. 
In view of the large development of storage on Black River, under 
the provisions of chapter 181 of the laws of 1851, in excess of what 
is really required there actually to make good the diversion during 
the low-water season, and, further, by reason of the State's finally 
placing the management of the principal reservoirs there in the hands 
of a commission of owners and users of water power, as provided by 
chapter 168 of the laws of 1894, it may be assumed that as regards 
Black River, the State has adopted the policy of conservation of 
water power, such policy being in line with the best thought of the 
present day. 

In the case of Skaneateles Lake there was for several years a strug- 
gle between the State and the city of Syracuse as to the right of that 
city to obtain the municipal water supply from Skaneateles Lake, the 
extraordinary feature of that controversy being the assumption on 
the part of the agents of the State that the municipalities of the 
State, even in the important matter of public water supply, had no 
'rights which the State apparently Avas bound to respect. 

It may be pointed out that the considerable diversity of law and 
policy, in regard to the rights of riparian owners thus shown to exist 
in the State of New York, can not operate other than to discourage 
the full development of the State's natural resources. What is greatly 
needed, therefore, in the State of Xew York is a consistent policy of 
some' sort as between the State, the navigation, the manufacturing, 
and all other interests, in which each shall receive proper considera- 
tion. Thus far navigation interests have usually been placed first, 



188 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25 



although it is clear that had there been a more thorough balance, the 
State as a whole would have been considerably in advance of its pres- 
ent position. 

FUTURE USE OF WATER POWER IN NEW YORK. 

In the foregoing pages we have seen that the Erie Canal was a devel- 
opment from the necessities of commerce, not only for the State of 
New York, but, as a means of connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the 
waters of the Great Lakes, for accelerating the industrial develop- 
ment of the Northwestern States. However, in the nineteenth century 
events move rapidly, and what was true of the Erie Canal thirty to fifty 
years ago is not necessaril}^ true to-daj^ Railwa}^ systems have now 
developed to such completeness as to compete successfully with water 
transportation by a channel of the size of the Erie Canal. The Erie 
Canal, therefore, has no longer an indispensable place in our transpor- 
tation system. Apparently it should either be radically enlarged, with 
entirely new methods of management, or else abandoned in favor of 
a ship canal along other routes. 

During the period covered by the rise and decline of the Erie Canal 
as the important factor in through transportation between the East and 
a large portion of the West the economic conditions of the interior 
portion of New York have entirely changed. Cheap transportation, 
b}^ way of Erie Canal and the Great Lakes, has led to a phenomenal 
development of agriculture on the broad plains of Minnesota and the 
Dakotas, where, by the use of modern agricultural machinery, grain 
can be raised at a profit at such prices as to drive the New York grain 
grower from the market. The cheap transportation afforded by the 
Erie Canal has, therefore, to a considerable degree, led to the passing 
of supremacy from the hands of the Eastern farmer, a loss which can 
only be regained b}^ the development to the fullest extent of the man- 
ufacturing industries of New York, thus making a home market for 
farm products that can not be transported a long distance, such 
as garden truck and small fruits. The people of the State of New 
York can purchase the Western breadstuff s as cheapl}^ as they can be 
produced at home, and this condition is likely to continue indefinitely. 

The long supremacy of the navigation interests has moreover led to 
the incorporation in the law, jurisprudence, and public policy of this 
State of certain rules of action as to the right to use the water of inland 
streams, which have tended to discourage the full development of 
manufacturing interests which now appears desirable, although the 
author views with satisfaction the rapid change of T)ublic sentiment 
now taking place on these questions. That manufacturing industries 
by water power are rapidly increasing in the State is made sufficientlj^ 
clear by the following statistics : 

According to the United States censuses of 1870 and 1880 the total 
developed water power of the State of New York was, in 1870, 208,256 



RAFTER] FUTURE USE OF WATER POWER. 189 

horsepower; in 1880, 210,348 horsepower; increase in the ten years, 
11,092 horsepower. The increase in ten j^ears of 11,002 liorsepower is 
equivalent to an increase of 5.4 per cent. The United States census 
of 1800 did not include any statistics of water power, and it is impos- 
sible therefore to state definitely the horsepower in that year; still, 
taking' into account the great increase shown bj^ the special investiga- 
tions on Hudson River in 1895, on Genesee River in 1806, and at 
Niagara Falls in 1807, and also considering the advances in paper 
making — a water-power industrj^ — as well as the great development 
now taking place at Massena, the increase for the whole State from 
1880 to 1900 may be estimated at about 120 to 140 iter cent. On this 
basis there will probably be in use in New York State at the close of 
the nineteenth century a total water power of something like 500,000 
gross horsepower. The manufacture of mechanical wood pulp alone 
consumes about 125,000 gross horsepower. These figures, while very 
suggestive as to the future, are nevertheless rendered more pertinent 
hy considering that with full development of the water-storage possi- 
bilities of the State, as well as the possibilities of power development 
on Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers, we may hope ultimately to reach 
a water-power development in the State of New York something like 
the following: 

Possible development of ivater power in New York. 

Gross horse- 
power. 

Streams tributary to Lake Erie 3, 000 

Niagara Hiver (in New York State) 350,000 

Genesee River and tributaries 65, 000 

Oswego River and tributaries 40, 000 

Black River and tributaries 120, 000 

Other tributaries of Lake Ontario _ _ 10. 000 

St. Lawrence River . 400, 000 

Oswegatchie, Grass, Racket, St. Regis, Salmon, Chateaugay, and other 

streams tributary to the St. Lawrence - . 150, 000 

Saranac, Ausable, Lake George Outlet, and other streams tributary to 

Lake Champlain 40, 000 

Hudson River and tributaries, not including Mohawk River .... 210. 000 

Mohawk River and tributaries 60, 000 

Streams tributary to Allegheny River _ 5, 000 

Streams tributary to Susquehanna River 25, 000 

Streams tributary to Delaware River 30, 000 

Water power of Erie Canal .. - 10.000 

Total.. 1.518,000 

But 1,518,000 gross horsepower has an effective productive value in 
manufacturing of sa}^ 1100 per horsepower x^er annum, or the inland 
waters of this State have an ultimate economic value, when fully 
develoiDcd, of at least $151,800,000 j)er annum. They msiy therefore 
be considered, in producing capacitj', substantially equal to the entire 
agricultural product of the State in 1890, which, according to the 
United States census of that year, amounted to a total of 8161,593,009. 



190 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 

Indeed, taking into account that agricultural values are continually 
depreciating, and water-power values appreciating, it is probable that 
ultimately, if New York State agriculture remains on the same basis 
as at present, the water-power values will considerably exceed the 
agricultural values. It is probable, however, if the manufacturing 
industries of this State are ever so far developed as to bring water 
power into use to the extent of 1,518,000 gross horsepower, that the 
local demand for agricultural products will have considerably changed 
the present downward tendency. As an off-hand figure, we may, 
therefore, place these two values, at some not very distant date, as 
equal, and aproximating about 1200,000,000 per annum. 

OBSTRUCTIVE EFFECT OF FRAZIE OR ANCHOR ICE. 

A very serious difficulty in operating water powers on many of the 
more rapid streams of this State is that caused by the formation and 
agglomeration of frazil and anchor ice, and probably there is no sub- 
ject in connection with water-power development which presents so 
many difficulties as this. So far as can be learned, nothing has been 
done in the State in the way of studying these phenomena, although 
the water powers on many New York streams are reported as subject to 
interruption nearly every year on account of the formation of frazil 
and anchor ice. The way to find a remedy is first to ascertain all that 
can be learned in regard to the difficulty to be overcome. From this 
point of view it is deemed proper to include herein a short account of 
studies of frazil and anchor ice made in the neighboring Dominion 
of Canada. 

Under the direction of John Kennedy, chief engineer of the harbor 
commissioner's works at Montreal, very extensive studies of the for- 
mation of frazil and anchor ice have been made. The terms "frazil" 
and "anchor ice" have been used synonymously, and are apparently 
often understood as the French and English words for the same thing, 
but the following from the Report of the Montreal Flood Commission 
of 1890 will serve to define the difference. According to this report, 
frazil is formed over the whole unfrozen surface wherever there is suf- 
ficient current or wind agitation to prevent the formation of border 
ice; whereas the term anchor ice includes only such ice as is found 
attached to the bottom. Frazil is frequently misused by being made 
to include ice formed on the bottom, as well as throughout the mass 
and on the surface of a river, although properly it should be only 
applied to floating ice. The common theorj^ has been that anchor ice 
first forms on the bottom, subsequently rising. The Montreal studies, 
however, show that this is hardly true. At times the whole mass of 
water from surface to bottom is filled with fine needles which actually 
form throughout the water mass itself. 

As to the remedy, the studies are hardly complete enough to indi- 
cate the best course to pursue. As practical hints, it may be stated 



RAFTER.] WATER YIELD OF SAND AREAS OF LONG ISLAND. 191 

that ill locating dams on streams specially subject to tliis difficulty 
they should be placed with reference to as long a stretch of back- 
water and as great depth as possible, all the studies thus far made 
tending to show that the formation is most extensive in shallow, 
rapid-flowing water. Usually trouble from frazil and anchor ice 
extends through a period of a day or two; and at very important 
plants, where even a short interruption would be a serious matter, 
arrangements may be made for using steam at the head works for 
keeping the racks open. This plan has been successfully pursued at 
the waterworks intakes of several of the Great Lake cities. In the 
case of power plants, where much larger quantities of water are 
required and the stream flows with greater velocity, the amount of 
steam required may be found to be very large. ^ 

WATER YIELD OF THE SA:ND AREAS OF E0:N^G ISLAND. 

Long- Island is about 114 miles in length, with a varying width of 
from 10 to 20 miles. Its watershed line consists of a regular ridge of 
low hills running from New York Bay to the eastern extremity of the 
island. The highest points of this ridge are about 350 to 390 feet 
above sea level. This ridge, which is believed to be a part of the ter- 
minal moraine of the great glacier, consists mainly of compact drift 
and bowlders, running at times into clay and coarse gravel. The con- 
siderable number of small ponds along the ridge evidence the com- 
pactness of its surface material. The slopes and spurs of the central 
ridge run into Long Island Sound on the north, making an irregular 
shore line, broken into baj^s and low headlands. On the south side 
the slopes lose themselves in a grassy plain sloping gently toward the 
coast. In its widest part it is called the Hempstead Plains, and 
stretches for a distance of from 5 to 15 miles between the foot of the 
central ridge and the Atlantic shore, which is very regular in its outer 
beach line; but an inner and mor6 irregular beach exists, formed by 
the shallow waters of Jamaica and Hempstead bays. The Atlantic 
shore does not anywhere touch the slope of the central ridge, but is 
separated from it by the wide gravelly plain just referred to. 

Numerous small brooks originating on the south slopes of the cen- 
tral ridge cross the gravelly plain, delivering their waters to the 
Atlantic. On the largest of these brooks gristmills were established 
at an early date, with ponds of from 8 to 40 acres of water surface and 
from 5 to 9 feet depth of water. 

The fall at these dams rarely exceeds 8 feet. The original munic- 
ipal water supply of the city of Brooklyn, as constructed about 1856 
to 1859, had its source in the HemjDstead Plains, several of the large 
brooks flowing from the central ridge to the Atlantic being appropri- 

1 Foi- reference to the literature of frazil and anchor ice see (1) Report of the Montreal Flood 
Commissioners of 1886; (2) Reports of the Harbor Commissioners of Montreal for the years 1885, 
1887, and 1895; (3) Paper on Frazil ice and its nature, and the prevention of its actions in caus- 
ing floods, by George H. Henshaw, Trans. Can. Soc. C. E., Vol. I, Part I, pp. 1-23; and (4) Paper 
on the Formation and agglomeration of frazil and anchor ice, by Howard T. Barnes, in Canadian 
Engineer, Vol. V (May, 1897). 



192 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 25. 



ated for this purpose. A distributing reservoir was established on 
the central ridge at an elevation of 170 feet above tide, with the 
water of the brooks forced thereto by pumping. These brooks were 
all mainly fed -by springs delivering directly into their ponds and 
channels. The length of these water courses from where the water 
was taken to the summer sources rarely exceeds 4 miles. In the orig- 
inal construction the waters of these ponds were conveyed by small 
branch conduits to a large main conduit extending from the most 
easterly pond or reservoir to the pump well at the engine house, 
which was located at the foot of the ridge on which the Ridgewood 
distributing reservoir was situated, not far from the east line of the 
city of Brooklyn. The main conduit was so located that the water 
flowed to the engine house by gravity. The following are the statis- 
tics of the six ponds originall}^ taken for the Brooklyn city supply, 
the minimum deliveries here given being as ascertained by measure- 
ments during the months of September and October, 1856 and 1857. 
The figures represent the natural delivery of each stream at its low- 
est stage of water, and do not include any encroachment upon the 
stored water which each pond retained, when full. 

Area of surface, minimum flow, and elevation of overflow of six ponds originally 
taken for the Brooklyn city supply. 



Pond. 


Area of 
surface 

(acres). 


Minimum 

flow (cubic 

feet in 34 

hours). 


Elevation 

of overflo\V 

above tide 

(feet). 


Jamaica ... - - 

Brookfleld . 

Clear Stream 

Valley Stream 

Rockville 

Hempstead 


40.00 
8.75 
1.07 

17.78 
8. 00 

23.52 


419,315 
265,098 

100,448 

325, 291 

353, 388 

1,054,713 


7.90 
15.40 
11.50 
12.80 
12.60 
10.60 



The same streams were measured in October and November, 1851, 
and the aggregate result then was 3,137,500 cubic feet. With the 
exception of Clear Stream, thej" were again measured in October, 1852, 
the result then being 2,606,300 cubic feet in 24 hours. 

According to a survey made b}^ Theodore Weston in the fall and 
winter of ]859, the drainage area of the streams originally taken for 
the municixjal supply of Brooklyn was found to measure 46.8 square 
miles, but subsequent measurements have placed it at 49.9, which is 
the figure now used.^ 

As already stated, the drainage grounds lie mainl}^ on the Hemp- 
stead Plains, although a small portion may be considered as Ij^ing 
on the southern slope of the central ridge. The ridge slopes are 
composed of clay and alluvial earth, with little power of retaining 

1 As to the difficulty of deterraining just what the drainage area of any one of these streams 
actually is, see I. M. De Varona's History and Description of the Brooklyn Waterworks, 1896. 



RAFTER.] WATER YIELD OF SAND AREAS OF LONG ISLAND. 193 

water. Hempstead Plain, on tlie other hand, consists of a very uni- 
form deposit of sand and gravel with occasional thin veins of clay; 
hence Hempstead Plain is largety receptive and retentive of water. 
The sand and gravel on this plain serves two purposes as regards 
the rainfall sinking into it: (1) It retains the water, only gradually 
delivering it to the surface in the valleys of the brooks or on or 
near the seashore in the form of springs; (2) it filters and purifies it, 
the gravel and sand performing the function of a natural filter bed. 
It is considered that but a small portion of the ground Avater of this 
gravel plain has been derived from the rainfall of any single year. 
The greater portion of it is considered to have collected during a series 
of years. Borings and open wells show that this ground water has a 
nearly uniform inclination toward the south shore of about 12 feet 
per mile. 

Upon the low ridges lying between the several streams crossing 
Hempstead Plain the inclination of the ground water varies with the 
width of the ridge, and is steeper in these parts than on the main 
slope toward the sea, the resistance of the retaining material there 
being proportionately less. So long as the slope of the ground water 
is left undisturbed by pumping, as from a series of wells, the perma- 
nent slope of the ground water is determined by the resistance of the 
material through which it flows. As regards the minimum flow of the 
streams receiving these underground waters, the longer the time 
occupied by that portion of the rainfall which sinks into the ground 
in reaching the outlets the greater will be the minimum flow of the 
stream as compared with its total flow; on the other hand, the shorter 
the time the smaller the minimum flow. In the case of the Long 
Island streams the minimum flows are not very large, a fact which 
indicates that the permanent regimen of these streams is probably 
maintained by the accession of the absorbed rainfalls of several years. 
It follows that so long as the basins are not drawn upon very 
greatly in excess of their flowage capacitj^ the permanency of Long 
Island ground water supplies is only moderately affected by variations 
in the yearly rainfall.^ 

The water supply of the city of Brooklyn has frequently been 
increased in order to meet the necessities of the constantly increasing 
population. Additional drainage areas have been taken, and open 
wells and driven-well systems have been constructed and additional 
streams and ponds appropriated. At present there are a number of 
deep open wells, each about 50 feet in diameter, and several driven- 
well stations. For details of the original conduits, ponds, and streams 
reference may be made to a description of the Brooklyn waterworks 
in Water Power of the United States, Tenth Census, 1880, Volume 
XVII, as well as to the histories of the Brooklyn waterworks. 

' The foregoing statements relating to the water- yielding properties of the Long Island 
sands are mostly derived from Kirkwood's History of the Brooklyn Waterworks and Sewers, 
published in 1867. For a more recent, as well as more exi ended, discussion of the same subject 
see De Varona's History and Description of the Brooklyn Waterworks. 



194 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP' NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 



In a report on the fnture extension of the water snpplj^ of Brooklyn, 
by Mr. I. M. De Yarona, engineer of the water supply, transmitted to 
the common council, January 31, 1896, tables are given of the total 
monthly and average daily quantities of water pumped into the 
Ridgewood reservoir for the years 1860 to 1895, inclusive. 

The accompanying table has been condensed from this report, giving 
in calendar years the total raijif all upon the watershed and the per cent 
of this utilized by pumping at Ridgewood. The average yield utilized 
is also expressed in cubic feet per second per square mile of watershed. 
This was originally 49.9 square miles, but was increased in 1872, 
being in subsequent years 52.3 square miles until 1883, when it was 
increased to 64.6 square miles, and in 1885 to 65.4 square miles. Con- 
siderable additions were made in 1891, and from that time on the 
area is given as 154.1 square miles. In 1860 the rainfall was 37.65 
inches, and the total amount of water pumped was equivalent to a 
depth of 1.44 inches on the watershed, or 3.82 per cent of the total 
rainfall. In 1896 the total rainfall was 38.82 inches. The amount of 
water pumped during that year would cover the watershed to a depth 
of 11 inches, this being over 28 per cent of the total rainfall. The 
average yield as obtained by pumping was 0.81 cubic foot per second 
per square mile of watershed. 

Total annual rainfall, per cent utilized, and average yield per square mile of water- 
shed of Brooklyn waterworks. 



Year. 


Rainfall in 
inches. 


Per cent 
utilized. 


Second- 
feet per 
square 
mile. 


Year. 


Rainfall in 
inches. 


Per cent 
utilized. 


Second- 
feet per 
square 
mile. 


1860 


37.65 


3.82 


0.11 


1879 .- 


39.61 


33.40 


0.97 


1861 .-- 


45.65 


3.92 


0.13 


1880 


40.76 


30.23 


0.90 


1862 


38.02 


5.73 


0.16 


1881.. 


39.53 


29.42 


0.86 


1863 


32.76 


8.39 


0.20 


1882 


39.83 


30.73 


0.90 


1864 


32.00 


10.53 


0.25 


1883 .- 


37.22 


33.05 


0.91 


1865 


46.14 


8.39 


0.28 


1884 


45.39 


27.89 


0.93 


1866 -. 


51.68 


8.88 


0.34 


1885 


36.85 


37.94 


1.03 


1867 


54.61 


9.39 


0.38 


1886 


51.38 


28.32 


1.07 


1868 


38.58 


17.29 


0.49 


1887 


45.66 


32.59 


1.10 


1869 


43.13 


17.20 


0.55 


1888 - 


48.45 


33.19 


1.18 


1870 


39.25 


19.82 


0.57 


1889 


56.54 


29.54 


1.23 


1871 


51.26 


15.78 


0.60 


1890 


52,15 


33.90 


1.30 


1872 


39.75 


23.47 


0.67 


1891 


39.18 


44. 82 


1.29 


1873 


47.99 


20.88 


0.74 


1892 


37.75 


24.53 


0.68 


1874 


45.83 


21.49 


0.73 


1893 


39.62 


26.27 


0.77 


1875 


40.90 


26.89 


0.81 


1894 


36.88 


26.33 


0.72 


1876 


41.77 


27.08 


0.83 


1895. 


35.64 


28.98 


0.76 


1877 -.-. 


40.18 


30.29 


0.90 


1896 


38.82 


28.31 


0.81 


1878 


48.66 


25.15 


0.90 











RAFTER.] SVATER YIELD OF SAND AREAS OF LONG ISLAND. 195 

Generall}' the Brooklyn waterworks liave not been so designed as 
to furnish records of the quantity drawn from these several differ- 
ent sources. There are also no records of the heights of the ground 
water at diiferent points in the drainage area. If such were to be 
kept for a series of years, the records of the Brooklyn waterworks 
would possess a value not easilj^ estimated. They would give a far 
more positive indication of the amount of water that can be drawn 
from such sandj^ areas than can now be gained from them. A few 
tests, however, of some of the driven-well plants have been made in 
the last few years. 

At a test of the old driven-well plant at Spring Creek, made from 
October 22 to November 20, 1894, water was pumped at an average 
rate of 4,091,551 gallons in 24 hours. The elevation of the underside 
of the discharge valve of the pump was 12.3 feet above datum. On 
October 22, at the beginning of the tests, the average elevation of the 
water in the wells was 4 feet below datum. The quantit}' pumped in 
24 hours, on October 22, was 4,488,275 gallons. On November 20, the 
date of the conclusion of the test, the elevation of water in wells was 
7.7 feet below datum, and the quantitj' pumped on that day in 24 
hours was 4,112,663 gallons. The total quantitj' pumped during the 
entire period from October 22 to November 20 was 122,746,525 gal- 
lons. The taking of this quantity of water from the wells resulted, 
therefore, in lowering the ground water a total of 3.7 feet. 

A new driven-well plant at Watts Pond was subjected to a test of 
capacity extending continuously from January 3 to February 2, 
inclusive. In 1895 a rather extended series of tests were made of a 
number of the wells of the Brooklyn water supply in order to determine 
the yield as well as the extent of the underground supply. The fol- 
lowing particulars of these tests have been derived from Mr. De 
Varona's report, as contained in the annual report of the commis- 
sioner of city works for the year 1895.^ 

The flowing wells at Jameco were tested from January 3 to 14, 
inclusive. During this period the wells were operated singly and in 
groups of 2, 3, and 4, in all possible combinations, and observations 
were taken to determine the elevation of the ground water. Upon 
completion of the tests a series of observations was taken, extending 
to January 30, to determine the normal water level. The results of 
these observations may be found in detail in De Yarona's report. It 
was shown that the average yield from one well alone was only 
1,000,000 gallons daily, decreasing iDro rata up to a total yield of 
3,500,000 gallons dail}^ when four wells were in operation. The lower- 
ing of the ground water was approximately 5 feet when pumping 
1,000,000 gallons, increasing up to approximately 10 feet when pump- 
ing at the full capacity developed of 3,500,000 gallons. In this con- 
nection it is stated that the water in these test wells is found to rise 

1 For a full account of the Brooklyn waterworks well systems see De Varona's History, etc. 



196 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no. 35. 

and fall directly with the tide, thus rendering it difficult to state with 
accuracy the full effect of the pumping on the lowering of the water. 
To determine this point fully, De Varona states, would require a more 
prolonged series of observations than it was possible to make in 1895. 

Another test was made at Jameco from December 9 to 20, 1895, 
inclusive. Between this date and the end of the previous tests an 
additional well had been sunk at Jameco to the depth of 160 feet. 
The average daily yield shown during the second test was, approxi- 
mately, 1,000,000 gallons for a single well, with a proportionate increase 
for each well connected, the yield for five wells being, approximately, 
5,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. The lowering of the water during those 
tests amounted to slightly over 14 feet at Jameco while pumping the 
5,000,000 gallons daily from the five wells. The total amount of water 
pumped during the test was 61,239,555 gallons. The greatest lower- 
ing of the underground water level occurred at test well No. 8, where 
it amounted to 15.23 feet. At that time, when the water at Jameco 
was at its lowest level, the fall between test well No. 8 and test well 
No. 11 was 9.9 feet. The normal water level was not restored until 
twelve days after the tests had ceased. 

The results obtained early in 1895 from the test made at Jameco 
of supplies from deep wells seemed to warrant further investigations 
as to the possibility of water from deep wells, and the report states 
that they have been carried on during the year. A series of test 
wells were driven, extending from the foot of the hill at Ridgewood 
reservoir to Poorest Stream pumping station, each well being carried 
to a depth sufficient to determine the jjossibility of obtaining a deep 
supply from that point. The number of those wells sunk during that 
year was twelve, and the records of the strata passed through are 
given in Bulletin No. 138, referred to in the footnote.^ 

Returning to the table on page 194, it may be stated that the tribu- 
tary drainage area in 1875, the first year for which statistics are given 
in the table, was 52.3 square miles. The drainage area remained at 
this figure until January, 1881, in which month, by the bringing of 
the Springfield pumping station into use, it was increased to 59.4 
square miles. In the water year of 1875, with a total rainfall of 41.6 
inches, the water utilized amounted to 10.78 inches, or to an average 
of 513,165 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.79 of a cubic foot 
per square mile per second. In the water year of 1880, with a total 
rainfall of 40.04 inches, the water utilized amounted to 12.37 inches 
on the watershed, or to 587,568 gallons per square mile per day, or to 
0.91 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. In 1881, with a rain- 
fall of 41.52 inches, the total utilization of water amounted to 11.64 
inches on the watershed, or to 554,473 gallons per square mile per day, 
or to 0.86 of a cubic foot -per square mile per second. This drop in 

1 For the particulars of the geology of several of the Brooklyn waterworks wells, of which 
tests were made in 1895, see Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, by 
N. H. Darton: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, 1896, pp. 23-37. 



RAFTEu] WATER YIELD OF SAND AREAS OF LONG ISLAND. 197 

tlie unit of utiliztition inerel)^ shows tlie effect of the increase in the 
area of the watershed. 

The tributar}^ watershed remained at 59.4 square miles until August, 
1883, in which month the Spring Creek and Baisley's driven-well sta- 
tions were started. From this date the tributar}^ drainage area is 
taken at 64.6 square miles. Spring Creek and Baisley's stations 
marked the beginning of the Brookl} n driven-well system. In the 
water year of 1884, with a total rainfall of 43.44 inches, the utilization 
was 12.53 inches, amounting to 594,992 gallons per square mile per 
day, or to 0.92 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 

In May, 1885, the Forest Stream and Clear Stream driven-well 
stations were started, thereby increasing the tributary drainage area 
to 65.4 square miles. In the water year of 1886, with a total rainfall 
of 50.43 inches, the water utilized amounted to 14.40 inches, equiv- 
alent to 685,521 gallons per square mile per day, or to 1.06 cubic feet 
per square mile per second. 

The drainage area remained 65.4 square miles until June, 1890, 
when it was increased to 65.6 square miles by the addition of the 
Jameco Park driven-well station. In the water year 1891, with a 
total rainfall of 40.34 inches, the water utilized amounted to 18.48 
Inches on the watershed, equivalent to 879,811 gallons per square 
mile per day, or to 1.35 cubic feet per square mile per second. 

Large extensions of the works were made in 1890 and 1891, so that 
with the beginning of pumping at Millburn on December 17, 1891, the 
tributary drainage area may be considered as increased from 65. Q to 
154.1 square miles, an increase of 88.5 square miles. In the calendar 
year 1892, with a rainfall of 37.75 inches, the water drawn from the 
original watershed of 65.6 square miles amounted to 16.81 inches on 
the watershed, equivalent to 800,191 gallons per square mile, or to 
1.24 cubic feet per second per square mile. The water drawn from 
the new watershed of 88.5 square miles that year amounted to 3.67 
inches on the watershed, equivalent to 174,776 gallons per square mile 
per day, or to 0.27 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. In 
1895, with a total rainfall of 35.64 inches, the original watershed of 
65.6 square miles yielded 12.62 inches on the watershed, equivalent 
to 600,723 gallons per square mile per daj', or to 0.93 of a cubic foot 
per square mile per second. The new watershed of 88.5 square miles 
furnished in that year 8.64 inches on the watershed, equivalent to 
411,558 gallons per square mile per da}', or to 0.64 of a cubic foot per 
square mile per second. 

Summarizing the information in regard to the water yield of the 
sand plains of Long Island, it ma}' be stated that the available data 
indicate a large yield. The streams of eastern New York can not be 
relied upon in their natural condition to yield more than about 0.3 of 
a cubic foot per square mile per second, while with an ordinary 
development of storage the limit may be usually placed at from 0.7 
IRR 25 7 



198 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART II. [no 25 

to 0.8 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, or at any rate at not 
much exceeding 1 foot per square mile per second. The sand deposits 
of Long Island may, therefore, be considered as great natural reser- 
voirs from which, with proper development, large water supplies may 
be drawn, the same as from reservoirs artificially created on the 
earth's surface, these natural underground reservoirs possessing the 
advantage of furnishing a filtered water ot high purity. 



INDEX TO PAPERS NOS. 2i AND 25. 



Page 

Adirondack Plateau, watei* yield of 16-18 

Allegheny Mountains, water yield of 16 

Allegheny River, hydrography of 44 

Anchor ice, obstruction from 14,190-191 

Ausable River, fall of 32 

Battenkill River, hydrography of... 40-41 

power of - 41 

Black River, hydrography of 29-30,96-97 

Black River Canal, cost and revenues of. 154-158 

length and capacity of 158 

Black Rock, water power at 1 78-179 

Brooklyn, water supply of .... 15,43,47,191-195 

Buffalo Creek, course of 24 

Canadaway Creek, power of 24 

Canals, construction of 145-150 

cost and revenues of 154-155 

improvement of 155-157 

transportation by 150-154 

water supply of 158-161,164-166,173-178 

See Ship canals. 

Canaseraga Creek, course of 25 

Catskill Mountains, water yield of 16 

Cayuga and Seneca Canal, construction 

of. _..- 149 

cost and revenues of 154 

Cayuga Lake, drainage area of 28 

Champlain Canal, construction of 148-149 

cost and revenues of 154-157 

length and capacity of 157, 158 

water supply of 159-161 

Chateaugay River, course of 30 

Chemung Canal, construction of 149 

cost and revenues of 154-155 

Chemung River, drainage area of.. 88 

floods iu.. 12,87-90 

Chenango Canal, construction of 149 

cost and revenues of 154-155, 157-158 

length and capacity of 157-158,161-165 

loss of water in 174-175 

Chenango River, course of 45 

Chicago drainage canal, water diverted 

through 63 

Clyde River, drainage area of 28 

Cohocton River, course of.. 45 

Cohoes, \.ater power at a5, 185-186 

Crooked Lake Canal, construction of 149 

cost and revenues of 154-155 

Croton River, hydrography of . . . 12, 33, 82-86. 98 

storage on 86-87 

Deforestation, effects of 11, 12, 14, 16-17 

Delaware River, hydrography of 46-47 

Des Plaines River, hydrography of. 54-55,61^65 



Page. 

East Canada Creek, hydrography of 36-37 

power of 37-38 

Eaton Brook, hydrography of 67,68 

Erie Canal, construction of 13,147-150 

cost and revenues of 154,157 

improvement of 155-156, 169-171 

length and capacity of 157,158,161-165 

transportation on 13-14, 150-154 

water power of 178-184 

water supply of 158-161, 164-166, 173-178 

Fish Creek, fall of. 36 

Fish Creek, power of.. 41 

Floods, occurrence of 12,72-73,87 

Forests, influence of.. 16-18 

Frazil, obstruction from 14,190-191 

Fr edonia, stream measurements near 95 

Genesee River, flood on... 112-113 

hydrography of . . 11, 25-27, 57, 58, 70-75, 90-92 

power of 109,123-125 

storage on 12,109-125 

tributaries of 25-26 

Genesee Valley Canal, cost and revenues 

of 154-155 

Grass River, course of 30 

Great Lakes, discharge of 58 

drainage ai-ea of 48 

precipitation on drainage area of. . 49-53, 58 
Hemlock Lake, hydrography of. 12, 75-77, 92-93 

Honeoye Creek, power of 26 

Hoosic River, hydrography of 40 

power of 40 

storage on 40 

Hudson River, commerce of 144-145 

hydrography of..- 33-34, 79-82,97-98 

logging on 14 

precipitation on drainage area of 133 

storage on 12,135-i:M 

tributaries of 33-i3 

Jameco, wells at 195-196 

Kayaderosseras Creek, power of 41 

Lake Champlain, streams tributary to. .. 31-33 

Lake Erie, altitude of 59 

Lake Ontario, drainage area of 65 

Little Falls, water power at 35 

Lockpor t, water power at 1 79-182, 186 

Long Island, hydrography of.. 14-15,47,191-198 

Low- water flow of streams 90-99 

Lumber, transportation of 14 

Madison Brook, hydrography of 67.68,69 

Massena, power development at 12,14:3-144 

Mechanicville, stream measurements at. 81-82 

Medina, water power at 182-184 

199 



200 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Mohawk River, hydrography of 35, 97 

tributaries of 35-40 

Morris Run, discharge of 93-94 

Mount Morris, proposed reservoir at 110, 

113-114,117,133-135 

stream measurements at 58,73-73,91 

Muskingum River, hydrography of. 55-57 

Ne versink Creek, course of 46 

Newell, F. H., letters of transmittal by.. 7,107 

Niagara Falls, power development at 13, 

135-143, 186 

Niagara River , hydrography of 11 , 

34-35,48,59-63 

power development on 13, 135-143 

Oatka Creek, hydrography of 69-70, 90 

Oneida River, drainage area of 29 

Oriskany Creek, course of 40 

Oswegatchie River, course of 30 

Oswego, water power at 184-185 

Oswego Canal , construction of . . - 149 

cost and revenues of 154,157 

length and capacity of 157 

Oswego River, hydrography of 37-39,96 

power of - -. 39 

O wasco Lake, drainage area of 38 

Ownership of water 10,14-15,186-188 

Paper, manufacture of- 14 

Pepacton River, course of 46 

Portage, proposed reservoir at 114-125 

stream measurements at 119-131 

Precipitation, amount of 19-31 

Price of water power 184-186 

Raquette River, course of 30 

Rochester, stream measurements at 73, 

76-77,91,119 

water power at 186 

Rome, water supply of - 35 



Page. 

Sacundaga River, hydrography of 43 

storage on 138,131 

St. Lawrence River, hydrography of 65-66 

power development on 13, 143-144 

tributaries of 34-31 

St. Regis River, course of 30 

Saranac River, fall of 33 

Sauquoit Creek, course of 40 

Schoharie Creek, hydrography of 35-36 

Schroon River, hydrography of 43 

storage on 129 

Seneca Lock Navigation Company, opera- 
tions of- 147 

Seneca River, drainage area of 28 

Ship canals, proposed routes for - 166-173 

Skaneateles Lake, hydrography of 77-78,96 

Spruce Creek, fall of 37 

Storage reservoirs, advantages of. - 13, 

111-113, 132-134 

canals supplied by 164-166 

capacity an d cost of - 116-1 17, 130-131 

sites for 109-111,113-125 

Susquehanna River, hydrography of 44-46 

Syracuse, stream measurements at 77-78 

Temperature, variations in - 18-19 

Tioga River, course of - 45 

Tonawanda Creek, course of 24 

Topography, character of 16-18, 21-23 

Upper Mississippi reservoirs, discharge 

of- 53-54 

"Warsaw, stream measurements at . - 93-94 

"West Branch of Canadaway Creek, dis- 
charge of -- 94-95 

West Canada Greek, hydrography of 38-39 

power of --- 39 

"Western Inland Lock Navigation Com- 
pany, operations of 146 



1895. 

Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1894^95, Part II, 
Papers of an economic character, 1895; octavo, 598 pp. 

Contains a paper on the public lands and their water supply, by P. H. Newell, illustrated 
by a large map showing the relative extent and location of the vacant public lands; also a 
; report on the water i^esources of a portion of the Great Plains, by Robert Hay. 

i A geological reconnoissance of northwestern Wyoming, by George H. Eldridge, 
1894; octavo, 73 pp. Bulletin No. 119 of the United States Geological Survey; 
price, 10 cents. 

Contains a description of the geologic structure of portions of the Bighorn Range and 
Bighorn Basin, especially with reference to the coal fields, and remarks upon the water 
supply and agricultural possibilities. 

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar years 1893 and 
1894, by F. H. Newell, 1895; octavo, 176 pp. Bulletin No. 131 of the United 
States Geological Survey; price, 15 cents. 

Contains results of stream measurements at various points, mainly within the arid region, 
and records of wells in a number of counties in western Nebraska, western Kansas, and 
eastern Colorado. 

1896. 

I Seventeenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1895-96, Part 
. II, Economic geology and hydrography, 1896; octavo, 864 pp. 

Contains papers on "The underground water of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colo- 
rado," by G. K. Gilbert; " The water resources of Illinois," by Frank Leverett; and "Pre- 
liminary report on the artesian areas of a portion of the Dakotas," by N. H. Darton. 

Artesian- well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton, 
1896; octavo, 230 pp., 19 plates. Bulletin No. 138 of the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey; price, 20 cents. 

Gives a description of the geologic conditions of the coastal region from Long Island, 
N. Y., to Georgia, and contains data relating to many of the deep wells. 

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar year 1895, by 
F. H. Newell, hydrographer in charge, 1896; octavo, 356 pp. Bulletin No. 140 
of the United States Geological Survey; price, 25 cents. 

Contains a description of the instruments and methods employed in measuring streams 
and the results of hydrographic investigations in various parts of the United States. 

1897. 

Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1896-97, Part 
IV, Hydrography, 1897; octavo, 756 pp. 

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the year 1896," by Arthur 
P. Davis; "The water resources of Indiana and Ohio," by Frank Leverett; "New devel- 
opments in well boring and irrigation in South Dakota," by N. H. Darton; and "Reser- 
voirs for irrigation," by J. D. Schuyler. 

1898. 

Nineteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1897-98, Part 
IV, Hydrography, 1899; octavo, 814 pp. 

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1897," 
by F. H. Newell and others; "The rock waters of Ohio," by Edward Orton; and "Pre- 
liminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred 
and third meridian," by N. H. Darton. 

Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, 1896-1899. 

This series of papers is designed to present in pamphlet form the results of stream meas- 
urements and or special investigations. A list of these, with other information, is given on 
the outside (or fourth) page of this cover. 

Survey bulletins can be obtained only by prepayment of cost, as noted above. 
Postage stamps, checks, and drafts can not be accepted. Money should be trans- 
mitted by postal money order or express order, made payable to the Director of 
the United States Geological Survey. Correspondence relating to the publications 
of the Survey should be addressed to The Director, United States Geological 
Survey, "Washington, D. C. 
IRR 25 



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^ IRRIGJ 



'1. Pumping water for irrigation, by Herbert M. Wilson, 1896. 

2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Arizona, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897. 

3. Sewage irrigation, by George W. Rafter, 1897. i/J 

4. A reconnoissance in southeastern Washington, by Israel C. Russell, 189' 

5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill, 1897 

6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Hawortl 

7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier, 1897. 

8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy, 1897. 

9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colorado, by David Boyd, 1897. 

10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker, 1898. 

11. River heights for 1896, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897. 

12. Water resources of southeastern Nebraska, by Nelson Horatio Dart< 

13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by William Ferguson Hutson, 

14. New tests of pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by C . P. Hood, 

15. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part 1, 1898. 

16. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part II, 1898. 

17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898. 

18. Irrigation n^^ar Fresno, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898. 

19. Irrigation near Merced, California, by C. E, Grunsky, 1899. 

20. Experiments with windmills, by Thomas O. Perry, 1899. 

21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett, 1899. 

22. Sewage irrigation, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899. 

23. Water-right problems in the Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead, 

24. Water resources of the State of New York, Part I, by George W. Rafter, 1899. 

25. Water resources of the State of New York, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899, 
In addition to the above, there are in various stages of preparation other papers 

relating to the measurement of streams, the storage of water, the amount available 
from underground sources, the efficiency of windmills, the cost of pumping, anc 
other details relating to the methods of utilizing the water resources of the coun 
try. Provision has been made for printing these by the following clause in the 
sundry civil act making appropriations for the year 1896-97: 

Provided^ That hereafter the reports of the Geological Survey in relation to 
gauging of streams and to the methods of utilizing the water resources ma 
printed in octavo form, not to exceed 100 pages in length and 5,000 copies in nui 
ber; 1,000 copies of which shall be for the official use of the Geological Survey. 
1,500 copies shall be delivered to the Senate, and 2,500 copies shall be delivered t( 
the House of Representatives, for distribution. [Approved June 11, 1896; Stat. L. 
vol. 29, p. 453.] 

The maximum number of copies available for the use of the Geological Survey 
is 1,000. This number falls far short of the demand, so that it is impossible U 
meets all requests. Attempts are made to send these pamphlets to persons v/ii 
have rendered assistance in their preparation through replies to schedules o 
donation of data. Requests specifying a certain paper and stating a reason f o 
asking for it are attended to whenever practicable, but it is impossible to compr 
with general requests, such as to have all of the series sent indiscriminately. 
Application for these papers should be made either to members of Congress or t 
The Director, 

United States Geological Survey, 

Washington, D. C, 
IRR 25 



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p. 0. 



